Relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about a noun in a sentence. Defining relative clauses tell us which person or thing we are talking about.

I think that’s the festival *where Alt-J played years ago.* 🎵

We don’t use commas before or after defining relative clauses. We can use *that* instead of *who* or *which.*

Fuji Rock uses chopsticks *which/that are made from local wood.* 🥢

We can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the relative clause.

The organiser *(who) we usually talk to is not available.*

We use relative pronouns in relative clauses. We use: *who/that* for people, *which/that* for things, *whose* for possession, *when* for time and *where* for place.

I met some people *whose tent collapsed in the night!* 🏕️

We can also use *whose* to refer to cities, countries and other nouns which suggest a group of people.

It’s a city *whose ambition is to be more sustainable.* 🌍

We omit nouns or pronouns which have been replaced by the relative pronoun.

She’s someone *who I know well.* NOT She’s someone *who I know her well.*

We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra or non-essential information.

The festival, *which was started by a small group of volunteers,* has run for more than twenty years. 🎉

We use commas to separate this clause from the rest of the sentence.

We cannot use *that* instead of *who* or *which* in non-defining relative clauses.

The concert, *which attracted thousands of people,* was a huge success, NOT The concert, *that attracted thousands of people,* was a huge success.

We cannot omit the relative pronoun.

Splendour in the Grass, *which I attended last year,* will be held in July. NOT Splendour in the Grass, I attended last year, will be held in July.

We can use *which* to refer to the whole of a previous clause.

I got sick, *which meant I could no longer do the job.* 🤒

In informal English, prepositions usually come at the end of a relative clause.

This is the song *which she’s most famous for.* 🎶

In formal written English, prepositions often come before the relative pronoun. For people, we use *whom,* NOT *who* after the preposition.

He’s the person *to whom I have spoken.* (formal)

He’s the person *who I have spoken to.* (informal)

*Where* can be replaced by *which … in* in informal English. In more formal English, we use *in which.*

The tent *which we slept in* is broken. (informal)

The tent *in which we slept* is broken. (formal) 🏕️

Festivals are an important part of human culture. They bring people together to celebrate traditions, history, art, and music. Around the world, festivals vary greatly, reflecting the unique customs of each country. Some festivals are centuries old, while others have started recently but have quickly gained popularity. Festivals are not only fun events but also opportunities to learn about different cultures and meet new people.

One of the most famous festivals is the Rio Carnival in Brazil. Every year, millions of people gather in Rio de Janeiro to watch the colorful parades of samba dancers. The Rio Carnival is known for its lively music, dazzling costumes, and incredible floats. It is said that the carnival started in the 18th century as a way for people to enjoy themselves before Lent, a period of fasting. Today, it has become one of the largest parties in the world. Watching the parade is an unforgettable experience, as dancers and musicians perform with so much energy and passion.

Another fascinating festival is Diwali, the Festival of Lights, celebrated by millions of Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains around the world. Diwali marks the victory of light over darkness and good over evil. Families decorate their homes with oil lamps and fireworks illuminate the night sky. One interesting story during Diwali is about the goddess Lakshmi, who is believed to visit homes that are clean and lit well, bringing wealth and prosperity. This festival doesn’t only boost happiness but also strengthens family bonds as people come together to share sweets and gifts.

In Europe, the Oktoberfest in Germany attracts visitors from all over the globe. It started in 1810 as a royal wedding celebration in Munich but today it’s known for its beer tents, traditional Bavarian music, and food like pretzels and sausages. People wear traditional clothes such as lederhosen and dirndls, which adds to the festive atmosphere. Visitors often say that the best part of Oktoberfest is the sense of community – strangers quickly become friends while singing and dancing together.

The Glastonbury Festival in the United Kingdom is a modern example of a music festival with a unique history. It began in 1970 when Michael Eavis hosted a small gathering on his farm. Now, it is one of the biggest music festivals in the world, attracting hundreds of thousands of fans. The festival is famous not only for music but also for its environmental focus and the friendly spirit of attendees. Many legendary artists have performed there, including David Bowie and Beyoncé. It’s said that the festival’s spirit of kindness and creativity makes it special.

Festivals often have a deeper meaning beyond entertainment. They remind us of our history, beliefs, and values. Whether it’s dancing in the streets of Rio, lighting lamps during Diwali, raising a glass at Oktoberfest, or enjoying live music in Glastonbury, festivals connect people from different backgrounds. They create memories that last a lifetime and teach us to appreciate diversity.

In conclusion, festivals are more than just celebrations. They are expressions of human creativity and unity. By participating in festivals, we can celebrate life and create connections that cross borders and generations. Have you ever experienced a festival that changed your perspective or made you feel part of a bigger community? If not, maybe it’s time to explore one and discover the magic of festivals yourself.

Nouns:

prosperity - wealth and success; economic well-being
diversity - variety of different people, cultures, or ideas
perspective - a particular way of viewing or understanding something
attendees - people who participate in or attend an event

Verbs:

illuminate - to light up brightly; to make something clear
strengthen - to make stronger or more powerful
appreciate - to recognize the value or importance of something

Adjectives:

dazzling - extremely bright and impressive; stunning
unforgettable - impossible to forget; very memorable
legendary - famous and remarkable; well-known through stories

Phrases:

gained popularity - became widely accepted and well-liked
cross borders - extend beyond cultural or national boundaries
sense of community - feeling of belonging and connection with others

Key Rule: Lower Pitch + Faster Speed

Non-defining relative clauses are pronounced with:

Lower pitch (deeper voice)
Faster speed (quicker than the main clause)
Softer volume (like adding extra information quietly)

📊 Pitch Pattern Examples
Pattern 1: High → Low → High
"My sister, ↘who works in Paris↘, is visiting us."

"My sister" - normal/high pitch
"who works in Paris" - lower pitch, faster
"is visiting us" - return to normal/high pitch

Pattern 2: The Parenthetical Effect
Think of non-defining relative clauses like speaking in parentheses - you lower your voice to add extra information.
"The movie, ↘which won three awards↘, starts at 8 PM."

Main information: "The movie starts at 8 PM"
Extra information: "which won three awards" (lower, faster)

🔄 Comparing Defining vs. Non-defining
Defining Relative Clauses (Essential Information):
"The student who sits next to me is very smart."

Same pitch level throughout
No pause before or after the clause
Essential - we need this information to know which student

Non-defining Relative Clauses (Extra Information):
"Tom, ↘who sits next to me↘, is very smart."

Lower pitch in the relative clause
Brief pauses (like commas in speech)
Extra - we already know who Tom is

🎯 Practice Patterns
Step 1: Identify the Main Message
Before speaking, identify what's essential vs. what's extra:

Essential: "I met John yesterday"
Extra: "who is my colleague"
Combined: "I met John, ↘who is my colleague↘, yesterday."

Step 2: Practice the Pitch Drop

Say the main clause with normal pitch
Drop your pitch for the relative clause
Return to normal pitch for the rest

Examples for Practice:

"My car, ↘which is very old↘, still runs well."
"London, ↘where I was born↘, is a beautiful city."
"The meeting, ↘which lasted two hours↘, was very boring."

📝 Written vs. Spoken Signals
Written:
Commas (,)
Essential information
Extra information

Spoken:
Pitch drop + slight pause
Same pitch level
Lower pitch, faster speed

🎭 Why This Matters
For Clarity:

Helps listeners understand what's important vs. what's additional
Makes your English sound more natural
Prevents confusion about the main message

For Fluency:

Native speakers automatically use this pattern
It shows advanced pronunciation skills
Improves overall rhythm of your speech

⚠️ Common Mistakes
Mistake 1: Same Pitch Throughout
❌ "My friend who lives in Spain is coming to visit." (sounds like defining)
✅ "My friend, ↘who lives in Spain↘, is coming to visit."

Mistake 2: Too Much Emphasis on Extra Information
❌ Making the relative clause louder than the main clause
✅ Making it lower and softer
Mistake 3: No Pitch Change
❌ Flat intonation throughout
✅ Clear drop in the relative clause, then return to normal

🔄 Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Mark the Pitch
Add pitch arrows (↗↘) to these sentences:

"My teacher, who is from Canada, speaks three languages."
"The restaurant, which opened last month, serves Italian food."
"Sarah, who I met at university, works in marketing."

💡 Quick Tips

Think "by the way" - non-defining clauses add information like saying "by the way"

Breathe naturally - the commas represent natural pause points

Practice with names - "John, who is my brother, lives nearby" (we know John already)
Use your hands - gesture down during the relative clause to feel the pitch drop