Passives

In general, we use the passive to focus on the person or thing affected by an action rather than the person or thing doing the action.
We use the passive when the person or thing that does the action:
• isn’t obvious.
• is unknown.
• isn’t important.
The theory has since been disproven. (We don’t know who disproved it and it isn’t important.)

We can also use the passive to talk about general beliefs and opinions. This use is more common in formal writing.

To talk about present beliefs, we use 'It is + thought/expected/believed/reported + that + clause.' We can omit that in less formal English.
It is thought (that) a lack of sleep can lead to health problems.
It is believed (that) many children do not get enough sleep nowadays.

To talk about beliefs in the past, we can use the same structure with the past simple or present perfect form of be.
In the 4th century BCE, it was thought that the Earth was at the centre of the solar system.
It was expected that she would be made CEO within the next year.
It has been suggested that people who have a varied diet have a lower risk of getting cancer.
It has been reported that a huge number of people regularly sleep fewer than six hours a night.

In today's fast-paced world, many people are struggling to get enough sleep. Sleep is very important for our health and well-being. However, various factors, including lifestyle changes and modern technology, have affected how well and how much we sleep. Recent scientific research helps us understand why many of us are not getting enough rest.

One of the main reasons for poor sleep is increased use of electronic devices. Smartphones, tablets, and computers emit blue light, which can interfere with our body's natural sleep signals. Research shows that blue light suppresses melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate sleep. This means using devices before bedtime can make it harder to fall asleep and reduce sleep quality.

Another reason is the increase in stress and anxiety. Many people face busy work schedules, financial worries, and personal issues that make it difficult to relax. Studies have revealed that stress affects the brain's ability to enter deep sleep stages, which are important for feeling rested. People experiencing high levels of stress often find themselves waking up during the night or having trouble falling asleep.

Modern work habits also contribute to less sleep. With the rise of remote work and flexible hours, people sometimes work late into the night or irregular hours, disrupting their natural body clock. Scientists call this disruption 'circadian rhythm disorder.' When our bodies don't follow a regular sleep schedule, it can lead to chronic sleep deprivation, which harms overall health.

Additionally, caffeine consumption has increased globally. Coffee, energy drinks, and sodas contain caffeine, a stimulant that keeps us awake. While caffeine can improve alertness, drinking it too late in the day negatively impacts sleep. Research shows that caffeine can stay in the body for up to six hours, so late afternoon or evening consumption is especially problematic.

Environmental factors also play a role. Noise, light pollution, and uncomfortable room temperatures can disturb sleep. New studies show that even small amounts of noise or light interrupt sleep cycles and reduce sleep quality. Creating a calm, dark, and comfortable sleeping environment is essential for good rest.

Scientists are also exploring how diet affects sleep. Recent findings suggest that eating heavy meals or sugary foods late at night makes it harder to fall asleep. In contrast, diets rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are associated with better sleep. Understanding this connection helps people make healthier choices to improve their rest.

Sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea and restless leg syndrome, are common but often go undiagnosed. These conditions cause repeated interruptions during sleep, leading to daytime tiredness and poor health. Advances in medical research have improved diagnosis and treatment options, but many people remain unaware they have a sleep disorder.

Finally, the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced sleep patterns worldwide. Changes in daily routines, increased screen time, and pandemic-related stress have caused 'coronasomnia,' or widespread sleep problems. Research continues to study this effect and how to address it effectively.

In summary, many factors contribute to why we are not getting enough sleep. Technology, stress, work habits, caffeine, environment, diet, and health conditions all play a role. As science uncovers more about these influences, we can use this knowledge to change habits and improve our sleep quality for better health and happiness.

Understanding sentence stress is important for improving your spoken English and comprehension, especially at B2 level. In English, certain words in a sentence are stressed (spoken louder or with more emphasis) because they carry the main meaning. These are called content words.

Content words include:
- Nouns (e.g., "book", "sleep")
- Main verbs (e.g., "go", "sleep")
- Adjectives (e.g., "important", "busy")
- Adverbs (e.g., "quickly", "often")

Function words are usually unstressed. They are necessary for grammar and sentence structure but carry less meaning by themselves.

Function words include:
- Pronouns (e.g., "he", "they")
- Articles (e.g., "the", "a")
- Prepositions (e.g., "in", "on")
- Auxiliary verbs (e.g., "is", "have")
- Conjunctions (e.g., "and", "but")

For example, in the sentence "She is going to the store," the stressed words are "going" and "store" because they carry the key information, while "she," "is," and "to the" are unstressed.

Using correct sentence stress helps listeners understand the important ideas in what you say and makes your speech sound more natural and clear.