Intermediate150 min
Uses of should
We use should in a variety of ways. There are different forms.
| Active | Passive | |
|---|---|---|
| Present/Future | should(n’t) + infinitive without to | should(n’t) be + past participle |
| At this time | should(n’t) be + -ing form | – |
| Past | should(n’t) have + past participle | should(n’t) have been + past participle |
We use should to give advice and suggestions.
You should take a photo of us all.
They shouldn’t take photos in here.
We use should to say what is ideal or desired, or to express obligation. Notice that sometimes ‘they’ is the subject.
‘They’ oft en refers to ‘people in charge’.
They should give us a day off .
You should put your seat belt on.
We use should + infinitive without to to talk about likelihood/possibility.
I’ve changed the settings. It should work better now.
We should see you all later.
We use should have + past participle to talk about regrets.
I shouldn’t have said that.
We should have done more to help.
We use shouldn’t to criticise.
She shouldn’t be working so hard.
You shouldn’t have put that photo online.
In formal contexts, we can use should after if in conditional sentences to talk about possible and hypothetical (unlikely) situations in the present or future, i.e. in first and second conditional sentences.
If someone should see me take a photograph here, I could be in trouble.
If is sometimes omitted in conditional sentences, and should is inverted, i.e. Should + subject + infinitive without to. This is very formal in tone.
If you need further information, call this number. ➞
Should you need further information, call this number.
If you take a photo in here, you’ll be arrested. ➞ Should you take a photo in here, you’ll be arrested.
You should take a photo of us all.
They shouldn’t take photos in here.
We use should to say what is ideal or desired, or to express obligation. Notice that sometimes ‘they’ is the subject.
‘They’ oft en refers to ‘people in charge’.
They should give us a day off .
You should put your seat belt on.
We use should + infinitive without to to talk about likelihood/possibility.
I’ve changed the settings. It should work better now.
We should see you all later.
We use should have + past participle to talk about regrets.
I shouldn’t have said that.
We should have done more to help.
We use shouldn’t to criticise.
She shouldn’t be working so hard.
You shouldn’t have put that photo online.
In formal contexts, we can use should after if in conditional sentences to talk about possible and hypothetical (unlikely) situations in the present or future, i.e. in first and second conditional sentences.
If someone should see me take a photograph here, I could be in trouble.
If is sometimes omitted in conditional sentences, and should is inverted, i.e. Should + subject + infinitive without to. This is very formal in tone.
If you need further information, call this number. ➞
Should you need further information, call this number.
If you take a photo in here, you’ll be arrested. ➞ Should you take a photo in here, you’ll be arrested.
Quiz
Question 1 of 5
Choose the correct sentence to give advice using 'should':
You should to see a doctor.
You should see a doctor.
You should seeing a doctor.
Quiz
Question 1 of 5
Choose the correct sentence giving advice:
You should to take a photo.
You should take a photo.
You should took a photo.
How the Internet is Changing International Politics and Diplomacy: A Digital Revolution in Global Affairs
The internet has fundamentally turned international politics and diplomacy on its head, creating a paradigm shift that has caught many traditional institutions off guard. What once required months of careful negotiation through official channels can now unfold in real-time across social media platforms, forcing diplomats to think on their feet and adapt to an environment where information travels at breakneck speed. This digital transformation has thrown the old playbook out the window, compelling governments worldwide to reinvent their approach to international relations.
Gone are the days when diplomatic communications could be carefully crafted behind closed doors without public scrutiny. The internet has blown the lid off traditional diplomatic secrecy, making it increasingly difficult for governments to keep their cards close to their chest. Leaked documents, whistleblower platforms, and investigative journalism enabled by digital tools have made transparency the name of the game, whether political leaders like it or not. This shift has put governments between a rock and a hard place, forcing them to balance the need for confidential negotiations with growing demands for public accountability.
Social media has emerged as a double-edged sword in international diplomacy. On one hand, it has democratized access to information and given voice to previously marginalized groups, allowing grassroots movements to mobilize across borders and put pressure on governments to address global issues. Citizens can now bypass traditional media gatekeepers and speak directly to international audiences, creating bottom-up diplomatic pressure that can move mountains when it gains momentum.
However, this same technology has also opened the floodgates to misinformation and propaganda campaigns that can poison the well of international discourse. State and non-state actors alike have learned to weaponize social media platforms, spreading false narratives that can inflame tensions and derail diplomatic processes. The line between legitimate public diplomacy and malicious information warfare has become increasingly blurred, creating new challenges for maintaining international stability.
The speed at which information now circulates has compressed the traditional timeline of diplomatic negotiations. Where diplomats once had the luxury of time to consider their words carefully and consult with superiors, they now find themselves under pressure to respond immediately to breaking news and viral content. This acceleration has led to a more volatile international environment where a single poorly worded tweet can send shockwaves through global markets and trigger diplomatic crises.
Cyber warfare has added an entirely new dimension to international conflict, creating a gray area where traditional rules of engagement don't necessarily apply. Nations now wage battles in cyberspace that can cripple infrastructure, steal sensitive information, and undermine democratic processes without firing a single shot. This has forced the international community to grapple with questions about how to establish norms and boundaries in a domain that transcends physical borders and operates according to different rules than conventional warfare.
The internet has also given rise to new forms of economic diplomacy, as digital trade and technology transfer have become central to international negotiations. Countries now compete fiercely for technological supremacy, recognizing that control over digital infrastructure and data flows can translate into significant geopolitical advantages. This has led to the emergence of tech nationalism, where countries prioritize domestic technology companies and seek to reduce dependence on foreign digital platforms and services.
International organizations have had to scramble to keep pace with these rapid changes, often finding their traditional structures and procedures woefully inadequate for addressing digital-age challenges. The United Nations, World Trade Organization, and other multilateral institutions are struggling to develop frameworks that can effectively govern cyberspace and address the cross-border nature of digital issues. This institutional lag has created a governance gap that both state and non-state actors have been quick to exploit.
The phenomenon of digital diplomacy has forced foreign ministries to reinvent themselves, hiring social media specialists and data analysts who can navigate the complexities of online engagement. Traditional diplomatic training, which emphasized formal protocols and face-to-face negotiations, has had to evolve to include skills in digital communication, crisis management in real-time environments, and understanding of how information flows through online networks.
Perhaps most significantly, the internet has shifted the balance of power in international relations by enabling smaller nations and non-state actors to punch above their weight. A well-crafted social media campaign or cyber operation can now have disproportionate impact on global affairs, allowing relatively weak actors to influence international narratives and challenge the dominance of traditional powers. This democratization of influence has made international politics more unpredictable and harder to control through conventional means.
The rise of digital authoritarianism has also emerged as a major concern, as some governments have learned to use internet technologies to extend their reach beyond their borders and suppress dissent both domestically and internationally. The export of surveillance technologies and digital control mechanisms has created new forms of international pressure and influence that operate outside traditional diplomatic channels.
Looking ahead, the continued evolution of internet technologies promises to bring even more dramatic changes to international politics and diplomacy. Artificial intelligence, blockchain technologies, and the Internet of Things are poised to create new opportunities and challenges that will require innovative approaches to global governance. The nations and institutions that can successfully adapt to this digital transformation will find themselves at a significant advantage in shaping the future of international relations.
Gone are the days when diplomatic communications could be carefully crafted behind closed doors without public scrutiny. The internet has blown the lid off traditional diplomatic secrecy, making it increasingly difficult for governments to keep their cards close to their chest. Leaked documents, whistleblower platforms, and investigative journalism enabled by digital tools have made transparency the name of the game, whether political leaders like it or not. This shift has put governments between a rock and a hard place, forcing them to balance the need for confidential negotiations with growing demands for public accountability.
Social media has emerged as a double-edged sword in international diplomacy. On one hand, it has democratized access to information and given voice to previously marginalized groups, allowing grassroots movements to mobilize across borders and put pressure on governments to address global issues. Citizens can now bypass traditional media gatekeepers and speak directly to international audiences, creating bottom-up diplomatic pressure that can move mountains when it gains momentum.
However, this same technology has also opened the floodgates to misinformation and propaganda campaigns that can poison the well of international discourse. State and non-state actors alike have learned to weaponize social media platforms, spreading false narratives that can inflame tensions and derail diplomatic processes. The line between legitimate public diplomacy and malicious information warfare has become increasingly blurred, creating new challenges for maintaining international stability.
The speed at which information now circulates has compressed the traditional timeline of diplomatic negotiations. Where diplomats once had the luxury of time to consider their words carefully and consult with superiors, they now find themselves under pressure to respond immediately to breaking news and viral content. This acceleration has led to a more volatile international environment where a single poorly worded tweet can send shockwaves through global markets and trigger diplomatic crises.
Cyber warfare has added an entirely new dimension to international conflict, creating a gray area where traditional rules of engagement don't necessarily apply. Nations now wage battles in cyberspace that can cripple infrastructure, steal sensitive information, and undermine democratic processes without firing a single shot. This has forced the international community to grapple with questions about how to establish norms and boundaries in a domain that transcends physical borders and operates according to different rules than conventional warfare.
The internet has also given rise to new forms of economic diplomacy, as digital trade and technology transfer have become central to international negotiations. Countries now compete fiercely for technological supremacy, recognizing that control over digital infrastructure and data flows can translate into significant geopolitical advantages. This has led to the emergence of tech nationalism, where countries prioritize domestic technology companies and seek to reduce dependence on foreign digital platforms and services.
International organizations have had to scramble to keep pace with these rapid changes, often finding their traditional structures and procedures woefully inadequate for addressing digital-age challenges. The United Nations, World Trade Organization, and other multilateral institutions are struggling to develop frameworks that can effectively govern cyberspace and address the cross-border nature of digital issues. This institutional lag has created a governance gap that both state and non-state actors have been quick to exploit.
The phenomenon of digital diplomacy has forced foreign ministries to reinvent themselves, hiring social media specialists and data analysts who can navigate the complexities of online engagement. Traditional diplomatic training, which emphasized formal protocols and face-to-face negotiations, has had to evolve to include skills in digital communication, crisis management in real-time environments, and understanding of how information flows through online networks.
Perhaps most significantly, the internet has shifted the balance of power in international relations by enabling smaller nations and non-state actors to punch above their weight. A well-crafted social media campaign or cyber operation can now have disproportionate impact on global affairs, allowing relatively weak actors to influence international narratives and challenge the dominance of traditional powers. This democratization of influence has made international politics more unpredictable and harder to control through conventional means.
The rise of digital authoritarianism has also emerged as a major concern, as some governments have learned to use internet technologies to extend their reach beyond their borders and suppress dissent both domestically and internationally. The export of surveillance technologies and digital control mechanisms has created new forms of international pressure and influence that operate outside traditional diplomatic channels.
Looking ahead, the continued evolution of internet technologies promises to bring even more dramatic changes to international politics and diplomacy. Artificial intelligence, blockchain technologies, and the Internet of Things are poised to create new opportunities and challenges that will require innovative approaches to global governance. The nations and institutions that can successfully adapt to this digital transformation will find themselves at a significant advantage in shaping the future of international relations.
1. **Fundamentally** /ˌfʌndəˈmentəli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: In a basic and important way
2. **Turned on its head**
*Meaning*: Completely changed or reversed
3. **Paradigm shift**
*Meaning*: A fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions
4. **Caught off guard**
*Meaning*: Surprised and unprepared
5. **Official channels**
*Meaning*: Formal government communication routes
6. **Unfold in real-time**
*Meaning*: Happen immediately as events occur
7. **Think on their feet**
*Meaning*: React quickly and cleverly to unexpected situations
8. **Breakneck speed**
*Meaning*: Extremely fast pace
9. **Thrown the old playbook out the window**
*Meaning*: Abandoned traditional methods completely
10. **Compelling** /kəmˈpelɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Forcing someone to do something
11. **Reinvent** /ˌriɪnˈvent/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Change something completely to make it new
12. **Gone are the days**
*Meaning*: Something that used to happen no longer occurs
13. **Crafted** /ˈkræftəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Made or created with skill
14. **Behind closed doors**
*Meaning*: In private, away from public view
15. **Public scrutiny**
*Meaning*: Careful examination by the general public
16. **Blown the lid off**
*Meaning*: Exposed hidden information or secrets
17. **Keep their cards close to their chest**
*Meaning*: Keep information secret
18. **Leaked** /likt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Secretly revealed to the public
19. **Whistleblower** /ˈwɪsəlˌbloʊər/ (US), /ˈwɪsəlˌbləʊə/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Person who exposes wrongdoing in organizations
20. **Investigative journalism**
*Meaning*: In-depth reporting that uncovers hidden information
21. **The name of the game**
*Meaning*: The most important aspect of a situation
22. **Between a rock and a hard place**
*Meaning*: In a difficult situation with no good options
23. **Confidential** /ˌkɑnfəˈdenʃəl/ (US), /ˌkɒnfɪˈdenʃəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Intended to be kept secret
24. **Accountability** /əˌkaʊntəˈbɪləti/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Responsibility for one's actions
25. **Double-edged sword**
*Meaning*: Something with both positive and negative effects
26. **Democratized** /dɪˈmɑkrəˌtaɪzd/ (US), /dɪˈmɒkrəˌtaɪzd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Made accessible to everyone
27. **Marginalized** /ˈmɑrdʒənəˌlaɪzd/ (US), /ˈmɑːdʒənəˌlaɪzd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Treated as unimportant
28. **Grassroots movements**
*Meaning*: Political activities organized by ordinary people
29. **Mobilize** /ˈmoʊbəˌlaɪz/ (US), /ˈməʊbəˌlaɪz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Organize for action
30. **Bypass** /ˈbaɪˌpæs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Go around or avoid
31. **Gatekeepers** /ˈɡeɪtˌkipərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: People who control access to something
32. **Bottom-up**
*Meaning*: From ordinary people to leaders
33. **Move mountains**
*Meaning*: Achieve something very difficult
34. **Gains momentum**
*Meaning*: Becomes stronger and more successful
35. **Opened the floodgates**
*Meaning*: Allowed something to happen in large quantities
36. **Misinformation** /ˌmɪsɪnfərˈmeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: False or inaccurate information
37. **Propaganda** /ˌprɑpəˈɡændə/ (US), /ˌprɒpəˈɡændə/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Information used to promote political views
38. **Poison the well**
*Meaning*: Contaminate or ruin something
39. **Discourse** /ˈdɪsˌkɔrs/ (US), /ˈdɪskɔːs/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Written or spoken communication
40. **Weaponize** /ˈwepəˌnaɪz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Use something as a weapon
41. **False narratives**
*Meaning*: Untrue stories or accounts
42. **Inflame tensions**
*Meaning*: Make conflicts worse
43. **Derail** /dɪˈreɪl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Cause something to fail or go wrong
44. **Diplomatic processes**
*Meaning*: Official international negotiation procedures
45. **Legitimate** /lɪˈdʒɪtəmət/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Legal and acceptable
46. **Public diplomacy**
*Meaning*: Government communication with foreign publics
47. **Malicious** /məˈlɪʃəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Intending to cause harm
48. **Information warfare**
*Meaning*: Use of information as a weapon
49. **Blurred** /blərd/ (US), /blɜːd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Made unclear or indistinct
50. **Circulates** /ˈsɜrkjəˌleɪts/ (US), /ˈsɜːkjʊˌleɪts/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Moves around or spreads
51. **Compressed** /kəmˈprest/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Reduced in size or duration
52. **Timeline** /ˈtaɪmˌlaɪn/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Schedule showing when things happen
53. **Luxury of time**
*Meaning*: Having plenty of time available
54. **Consult with superiors**
*Meaning*: Ask advice from higher-ranking people
55. **Breaking news**
*Meaning*: Recently reported important information
56. **Viral content**
*Meaning*: Information that spreads rapidly online
57. **Acceleration** /əkˌseləˈreɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Increase in speed or rate
58. **Volatile** /ˈvɑlətəl/ (US), /ˈvɒlətaɪl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Changing rapidly and unpredictably
59. **Poorly worded**
*Meaning*: Badly expressed or phrased
60. **Send shockwaves**
*Meaning*: Cause great surprise or disturbance
61. **Trigger** /ˈtrɪɡər/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Cause something to happen
62. **Diplomatic crises**
*Meaning*: Serious problems in international relations
63. **Cyber warfare**
*Meaning*: Conflict conducted in cyberspace
64. **Gray area**
*Meaning*: Unclear or undefined situation
65. **Rules of engagement**
*Meaning*: Guidelines for military or diplomatic conduct
66. **Wage battles**
*Meaning*: Fight conflicts
67. **Cyberspace** /ˈsaɪbərˌspeɪs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: The virtual environment of computer networks
68. **Cripple** /ˈkrɪpəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Severely damage or disable
69. **Infrastructure** /ˈɪnfrəˌstrʌktʃər/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic physical and organizational structures
70. **Undermine** /ˌʌndərˈmaɪn/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Weaken or damage gradually
71. **Democratic processes**
*Meaning*: Methods of making decisions through voting
72. **Firing a single shot**
*Meaning*: Using violence or weapons
73. **Grapple with**
*Meaning*: Struggle to deal with or understand
74. **Establish norms**
*Meaning*: Create accepted standards of behavior
75. **Transcends** /trænˈsendz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Goes beyond the limits of
76. **Conventional warfare**
*Meaning*: Traditional military conflict
77. **Given rise to**
*Meaning*: Caused the development of
78. **Economic diplomacy**
*Meaning*: Using economic tools in international relations
79. **Digital trade**
*Meaning*: Commerce conducted electronically
80. **Technology transfer**
*Meaning*: Sharing technical knowledge between countries
81. **Compete fiercely**
*Meaning*: Try very hard to win against others
82. **Technological supremacy**
*Meaning*: Superior position in technology
83. **Data flows**
*Meaning*: Movement of information
84. **Geopolitical** /ˌdʒioʊpəˈlɪtɪkəl/ (US), /ˌdʒiːəʊpəˈlɪtɪkəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Relating to politics and geography
85. **Tech nationalism**
*Meaning*: Prioritizing domestic technology companies
86. **Scramble** /ˈskræmbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Move quickly to do something
87. **Keep pace with**
*Meaning*: Move at the same speed as
88. **Woefully inadequate**
*Meaning*: Extremely insufficient
89. **Multilateral** /ˌmʌltiˈlætərəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Involving several countries
90. **Frameworks** /ˈfreɪmˌwɜrks/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic structures or systems
91. **Cross-border**
*Meaning*: Between or across different countries
92. **Institutional lag**
*Meaning*: Organizations being slow to adapt
93. **Governance gap**
*Meaning*: Lack of proper management or control
94. **Quick to exploit**
*Meaning*: Fast to take advantage of
95. **Foreign ministries**
*Meaning*: Government departments handling international relations
96. **Navigate** /ˈnævəˌɡeɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Find a way through something difficult
97. **Complexities** /kəmˈpleksətiz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Complicated aspects
98. **Protocols** /ˈproʊtəˌkɔlz/ (US), /ˈprəʊtəˌkɒlz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Official procedures or rules
99. **Face-to-face negotiations**
*Meaning*: Direct personal discussions
100. **Crisis management**
*Meaning*: Dealing with emergency situations
101. **Real-time environments**
*Meaning*: Situations happening immediately
102. **Information flows**
*Meaning*: Movement of data or knowledge
103. **Shifted the balance of power**
*Meaning*: Changed who has control or influence
104. **Punch above their weight**
*Meaning*: Have more influence than expected
105. **Disproportionate** /ˌdɪsprəˈpɔrʃənət/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Too large or small compared to something else
106. **Democratization** /dɪˌmɑkrətəˈzeɪʃən/ (US), /dɪˌmɒkrətaɪˈzeɪʃən/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Making something available to everyone
107. **Unpredictable** /ˌʌnprɪˈdɪktəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not able to be foreseen
108. **Conventional means**
*Meaning*: Traditional methods
109. **Digital authoritarianism**
*Meaning*: Using technology to control people
110. **Extend their reach**
*Meaning*: Increase their influence or control
111. **Suppress dissent**
*Meaning*: Stop people from expressing disagreement
112. **Export** /ɪkˈspɔrt/ (US), /ɪkˈspɔːt/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Send to other countries
113. **Surveillance** /sərˈveɪləns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Close observation of people
114. **Control mechanisms**
*Meaning*: Methods for managing or directing
115. **Looking ahead**
*Meaning*: Thinking about the future
116. **Artificial intelligence**
*Meaning*: Computer systems that can think like humans
117. **Blockchain** /ˈblɑkˌtʃeɪn/ (US), /ˈblɒkˌtʃeɪn/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Secure digital record-keeping system
118. **Internet of Things**
*Meaning*: Network of connected everyday objects
119. **Poised** /pɔɪzd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Ready to do something
120. **Global governance**
*Meaning*: International management and control systems
*Meaning*: In a basic and important way
2. **Turned on its head**
*Meaning*: Completely changed or reversed
3. **Paradigm shift**
*Meaning*: A fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions
4. **Caught off guard**
*Meaning*: Surprised and unprepared
5. **Official channels**
*Meaning*: Formal government communication routes
6. **Unfold in real-time**
*Meaning*: Happen immediately as events occur
7. **Think on their feet**
*Meaning*: React quickly and cleverly to unexpected situations
8. **Breakneck speed**
*Meaning*: Extremely fast pace
9. **Thrown the old playbook out the window**
*Meaning*: Abandoned traditional methods completely
10. **Compelling** /kəmˈpelɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Forcing someone to do something
11. **Reinvent** /ˌriɪnˈvent/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Change something completely to make it new
12. **Gone are the days**
*Meaning*: Something that used to happen no longer occurs
13. **Crafted** /ˈkræftəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Made or created with skill
14. **Behind closed doors**
*Meaning*: In private, away from public view
15. **Public scrutiny**
*Meaning*: Careful examination by the general public
16. **Blown the lid off**
*Meaning*: Exposed hidden information or secrets
17. **Keep their cards close to their chest**
*Meaning*: Keep information secret
18. **Leaked** /likt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Secretly revealed to the public
19. **Whistleblower** /ˈwɪsəlˌbloʊər/ (US), /ˈwɪsəlˌbləʊə/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Person who exposes wrongdoing in organizations
20. **Investigative journalism**
*Meaning*: In-depth reporting that uncovers hidden information
21. **The name of the game**
*Meaning*: The most important aspect of a situation
22. **Between a rock and a hard place**
*Meaning*: In a difficult situation with no good options
23. **Confidential** /ˌkɑnfəˈdenʃəl/ (US), /ˌkɒnfɪˈdenʃəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Intended to be kept secret
24. **Accountability** /əˌkaʊntəˈbɪləti/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Responsibility for one's actions
25. **Double-edged sword**
*Meaning*: Something with both positive and negative effects
26. **Democratized** /dɪˈmɑkrəˌtaɪzd/ (US), /dɪˈmɒkrəˌtaɪzd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Made accessible to everyone
27. **Marginalized** /ˈmɑrdʒənəˌlaɪzd/ (US), /ˈmɑːdʒənəˌlaɪzd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Treated as unimportant
28. **Grassroots movements**
*Meaning*: Political activities organized by ordinary people
29. **Mobilize** /ˈmoʊbəˌlaɪz/ (US), /ˈməʊbəˌlaɪz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Organize for action
30. **Bypass** /ˈbaɪˌpæs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Go around or avoid
31. **Gatekeepers** /ˈɡeɪtˌkipərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: People who control access to something
32. **Bottom-up**
*Meaning*: From ordinary people to leaders
33. **Move mountains**
*Meaning*: Achieve something very difficult
34. **Gains momentum**
*Meaning*: Becomes stronger and more successful
35. **Opened the floodgates**
*Meaning*: Allowed something to happen in large quantities
36. **Misinformation** /ˌmɪsɪnfərˈmeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: False or inaccurate information
37. **Propaganda** /ˌprɑpəˈɡændə/ (US), /ˌprɒpəˈɡændə/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Information used to promote political views
38. **Poison the well**
*Meaning*: Contaminate or ruin something
39. **Discourse** /ˈdɪsˌkɔrs/ (US), /ˈdɪskɔːs/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Written or spoken communication
40. **Weaponize** /ˈwepəˌnaɪz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Use something as a weapon
41. **False narratives**
*Meaning*: Untrue stories or accounts
42. **Inflame tensions**
*Meaning*: Make conflicts worse
43. **Derail** /dɪˈreɪl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Cause something to fail or go wrong
44. **Diplomatic processes**
*Meaning*: Official international negotiation procedures
45. **Legitimate** /lɪˈdʒɪtəmət/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Legal and acceptable
46. **Public diplomacy**
*Meaning*: Government communication with foreign publics
47. **Malicious** /məˈlɪʃəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Intending to cause harm
48. **Information warfare**
*Meaning*: Use of information as a weapon
49. **Blurred** /blərd/ (US), /blɜːd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Made unclear or indistinct
50. **Circulates** /ˈsɜrkjəˌleɪts/ (US), /ˈsɜːkjʊˌleɪts/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Moves around or spreads
51. **Compressed** /kəmˈprest/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Reduced in size or duration
52. **Timeline** /ˈtaɪmˌlaɪn/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Schedule showing when things happen
53. **Luxury of time**
*Meaning*: Having plenty of time available
54. **Consult with superiors**
*Meaning*: Ask advice from higher-ranking people
55. **Breaking news**
*Meaning*: Recently reported important information
56. **Viral content**
*Meaning*: Information that spreads rapidly online
57. **Acceleration** /əkˌseləˈreɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Increase in speed or rate
58. **Volatile** /ˈvɑlətəl/ (US), /ˈvɒlətaɪl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Changing rapidly and unpredictably
59. **Poorly worded**
*Meaning*: Badly expressed or phrased
60. **Send shockwaves**
*Meaning*: Cause great surprise or disturbance
61. **Trigger** /ˈtrɪɡər/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Cause something to happen
62. **Diplomatic crises**
*Meaning*: Serious problems in international relations
63. **Cyber warfare**
*Meaning*: Conflict conducted in cyberspace
64. **Gray area**
*Meaning*: Unclear or undefined situation
65. **Rules of engagement**
*Meaning*: Guidelines for military or diplomatic conduct
66. **Wage battles**
*Meaning*: Fight conflicts
67. **Cyberspace** /ˈsaɪbərˌspeɪs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: The virtual environment of computer networks
68. **Cripple** /ˈkrɪpəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Severely damage or disable
69. **Infrastructure** /ˈɪnfrəˌstrʌktʃər/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic physical and organizational structures
70. **Undermine** /ˌʌndərˈmaɪn/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Weaken or damage gradually
71. **Democratic processes**
*Meaning*: Methods of making decisions through voting
72. **Firing a single shot**
*Meaning*: Using violence or weapons
73. **Grapple with**
*Meaning*: Struggle to deal with or understand
74. **Establish norms**
*Meaning*: Create accepted standards of behavior
75. **Transcends** /trænˈsendz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Goes beyond the limits of
76. **Conventional warfare**
*Meaning*: Traditional military conflict
77. **Given rise to**
*Meaning*: Caused the development of
78. **Economic diplomacy**
*Meaning*: Using economic tools in international relations
79. **Digital trade**
*Meaning*: Commerce conducted electronically
80. **Technology transfer**
*Meaning*: Sharing technical knowledge between countries
81. **Compete fiercely**
*Meaning*: Try very hard to win against others
82. **Technological supremacy**
*Meaning*: Superior position in technology
83. **Data flows**
*Meaning*: Movement of information
84. **Geopolitical** /ˌdʒioʊpəˈlɪtɪkəl/ (US), /ˌdʒiːəʊpəˈlɪtɪkəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Relating to politics and geography
85. **Tech nationalism**
*Meaning*: Prioritizing domestic technology companies
86. **Scramble** /ˈskræmbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Move quickly to do something
87. **Keep pace with**
*Meaning*: Move at the same speed as
88. **Woefully inadequate**
*Meaning*: Extremely insufficient
89. **Multilateral** /ˌmʌltiˈlætərəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Involving several countries
90. **Frameworks** /ˈfreɪmˌwɜrks/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic structures or systems
91. **Cross-border**
*Meaning*: Between or across different countries
92. **Institutional lag**
*Meaning*: Organizations being slow to adapt
93. **Governance gap**
*Meaning*: Lack of proper management or control
94. **Quick to exploit**
*Meaning*: Fast to take advantage of
95. **Foreign ministries**
*Meaning*: Government departments handling international relations
96. **Navigate** /ˈnævəˌɡeɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Find a way through something difficult
97. **Complexities** /kəmˈpleksətiz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Complicated aspects
98. **Protocols** /ˈproʊtəˌkɔlz/ (US), /ˈprəʊtəˌkɒlz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Official procedures or rules
99. **Face-to-face negotiations**
*Meaning*: Direct personal discussions
100. **Crisis management**
*Meaning*: Dealing with emergency situations
101. **Real-time environments**
*Meaning*: Situations happening immediately
102. **Information flows**
*Meaning*: Movement of data or knowledge
103. **Shifted the balance of power**
*Meaning*: Changed who has control or influence
104. **Punch above their weight**
*Meaning*: Have more influence than expected
105. **Disproportionate** /ˌdɪsprəˈpɔrʃənət/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Too large or small compared to something else
106. **Democratization** /dɪˌmɑkrətəˈzeɪʃən/ (US), /dɪˌmɒkrətaɪˈzeɪʃən/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Making something available to everyone
107. **Unpredictable** /ˌʌnprɪˈdɪktəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not able to be foreseen
108. **Conventional means**
*Meaning*: Traditional methods
109. **Digital authoritarianism**
*Meaning*: Using technology to control people
110. **Extend their reach**
*Meaning*: Increase their influence or control
111. **Suppress dissent**
*Meaning*: Stop people from expressing disagreement
112. **Export** /ɪkˈspɔrt/ (US), /ɪkˈspɔːt/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Send to other countries
113. **Surveillance** /sərˈveɪləns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Close observation of people
114. **Control mechanisms**
*Meaning*: Methods for managing or directing
115. **Looking ahead**
*Meaning*: Thinking about the future
116. **Artificial intelligence**
*Meaning*: Computer systems that can think like humans
117. **Blockchain** /ˈblɑkˌtʃeɪn/ (US), /ˈblɒkˌtʃeɪn/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Secure digital record-keeping system
118. **Internet of Things**
*Meaning*: Network of connected everyday objects
119. **Poised** /pɔɪzd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Ready to do something
120. **Global governance**
*Meaning*: International management and control systems
Using "Should" in Connected Speech
In connected speech, the modal verb "should" often undergoes sound changes for smoother and faster pronunciation in everyday conversation. Here are some key points about "should" in connected speech:
1. Weak Form: "Should" commonly has a weak form /ʃəd/ or /ʃd/ instead of the strong form /ʃʊd/. When it is unstressed, it tends to reduce to the weak form. For example, "You should go" sounds like "You shud go."
2. Linking Sounds: When "should" is followed by a word starting with a vowel sound, a linking sound /d/ is often added to connect the two words smoothly. For example, "should I" sounds like "shood I." This linking helps to maintain the rhythm and fluency of speech.
3. Elision: In rapid speech, the /d/ sound at the end of "should" can be dropped if the next word begins with a consonant sound. For example, "should stop" may sound like "shoul stop."
4. Assimilation: Sometimes, the /d/ sound of "should" changes to match the consonant at the start of the next word for easier pronunciation. For example, "should go" might sound like "shoul go," with a softer /d/.
1. Weak Form: "Should" commonly has a weak form /ʃəd/ or /ʃd/ instead of the strong form /ʃʊd/. When it is unstressed, it tends to reduce to the weak form. For example, "You should go" sounds like "You shud go."
2. Linking Sounds: When "should" is followed by a word starting with a vowel sound, a linking sound /d/ is often added to connect the two words smoothly. For example, "should I" sounds like "shood I." This linking helps to maintain the rhythm and fluency of speech.
3. Elision: In rapid speech, the /d/ sound at the end of "should" can be dropped if the next word begins with a consonant sound. For example, "should stop" may sound like "shoul stop."
4. Assimilation: Sometimes, the /d/ sound of "should" changes to match the consonant at the start of the next word for easier pronunciation. For example, "should go" might sound like "shoul go," with a softer /d/.