Intermediate150 min
The continuous aspect
There are three aspects of verb forms: simple, perfect and continuous.
The simple aspect in the past emphasises that an action is complete, e.g. We visited Dublin last week.
The perfect aspect in the past emphasises that an action is completed before another action, e.g. Tom had already left.
The continuous aspect focuses on the action and its duration, rather than the completion of the action and its result.
We can use the continuous aspect to talk about actions in the past, present and future. All the continuous forms use the appropriate form of be and the -ing form of the verb.
The simple aspect in the past emphasises that an action is complete, e.g. We visited Dublin last week.
The perfect aspect in the past emphasises that an action is completed before another action, e.g. Tom had already left.
The continuous aspect focuses on the action and its duration, rather than the completion of the action and its result.
We can use the continuous aspect to talk about actions in the past, present and future. All the continuous forms use the appropriate form of be and the -ing form of the verb.
| Verb form | Examples |
|---|---|
| Present continuous | I’m working at the moment. Where are you living now? |
| Past continuous | It was raining hard. What were they doing? |
| Present perfect continuous | He’s been sitting there all afternoon. Have you been waiting long? |
| Past perfect continuous | I could see that she had been crying. We hadn’t been expecting any visitors. |
| Future continuous | I’ll be seeing Jack tomorrow. Where will you be staying? |
| Future perfect continuous | By next month, I’ll have been working here for three years. |
| Continuous infinitive | My phone seems to be working now. |
We can use the continuous aspect to talk about:
• actions in progress at a particular time.
She’s working at the moment.
He was watching TV when we arrived.
• temporary situations.
I’m staying with friends at the moment.
We were living in Rome at that time.
• situations that are changing.
My French is getting better.
The weather was getting colder.
• actions that continue over a period of time.
I’ve been studying all aft ernoon.
In contrast to the continuous aspect, we use the simple tenses to talk about facts, permanent situations, finished actions and habits.
I visited my brother in New York last year. He works for a bank and goes to the gym every day.
Remember that some verbs are state verbs and we don’t use them in continuous forms.
I don’t understand what you’re saying.
I’ve always loved this restaurant!
• actions in progress at a particular time.
She’s working at the moment.
He was watching TV when we arrived.
• temporary situations.
I’m staying with friends at the moment.
We were living in Rome at that time.
• situations that are changing.
My French is getting better.
The weather was getting colder.
• actions that continue over a period of time.
I’ve been studying all aft ernoon.
In contrast to the continuous aspect, we use the simple tenses to talk about facts, permanent situations, finished actions and habits.
I visited my brother in New York last year. He works for a bank and goes to the gym every day.
Remember that some verbs are state verbs and we don’t use them in continuous forms.
I don’t understand what you’re saying.
I’ve always loved this restaurant!
Quiz
Question 1 of 10
Choose the correct simple past form: 'We ___ to Dublin last week.'
visit
visited
visiting
The Rise of "Netpolitik": Digital Power in the Information Age
The emergence of "Netpolitik" has fundamentally shifted the landscape of international relations, ushering in an era where digital networks and online platforms have become the new battlegrounds for influence and power. This concept, which refers to the use of internet technologies and digital strategies to achieve political objectives, has caught traditional foreign policy establishments off balance, forcing them to reinvent their approach to statecraft in an increasingly connected world.
Gone are the days when diplomatic influence could be wielded exclusively through embassy cables and formal state visits. Today's power brokers are just as likely to shape global narratives through viral social media campaigns, strategic data manipulation, and sophisticated cyber operations as they are through conventional diplomatic channels. This paradigm shift has leveled the playing field in many ways, allowing smaller nations and non-state actors to punch above their weight and challenge the dominance of traditional superpowers.
The internet has become the great equalizer in international politics, providing a platform where asymmetric warfare can flourish. A well-orchestrated disinformation campaign launched from a modest server farm can now have the same impact as a massive military operation, disrupting elections, destabilizing governments, and sowing discord across continents. This has forced policymakers to grapple with new forms of threat that don't fit neatly into existing frameworks of international law and security doctrine.
Social media platforms have emerged as the new public squares of global politics, where battles for hearts and minds are fought in real-time. Nations that master the art of digital persuasion can now bypass traditional media gatekeepers and speak directly to foreign populations, spreading their preferred narratives and undermining their adversaries' credibility. This direct line of communication has broken down many of the barriers that once separated domestic and international audiences, creating a more fluid and unpredictable information environment.
The rise of influencer networks and bot armies has added another layer of complexity to international relations. State and non-state actors alike have learned to harness these digital tools to amplify their messages, create artificial grassroots movements, and manipulate public opinion on a scale never before possible. What appears to be organic citizen activism may actually be the result of carefully orchestrated campaigns designed to advance specific geopolitical agendas.
Economic statecraft has also been revolutionized by digital technologies. Countries now compete fiercely for control over critical digital infrastructure, from undersea cables that carry internet traffic to the semiconductor supply chains that power the modern economy. The ability to control or disrupt these digital arteries has become a significant source of leverage in international negotiations, giving technologically advanced nations new tools for exerting pressure on their rivals.
The phenomenon of "techlash" has emerged as nations begin to push back against the dominance of global technology platforms and assert greater control over their digital sovereignty. Countries are increasingly implementing data localization requirements, content moderation rules, and national internet filtering systems, creating a more fragmented and balkanized online world. This trend toward digital nationalism threatens to undermine the original vision of the internet as a borderless global commons.
Cyber espionage has become the new norm in intelligence gathering, with nation-states routinely infiltrating each other's networks to steal sensitive information, monitor communications, and position themselves for potential future conflicts. The attribution problem in cyberspace has created a particularly thorny challenge for international relations, as it's often difficult to definitively prove who is behind a particular attack, leading to accusations and counter-accusations that can poison diplomatic relationships.
The concept of "hybrid warfare" has gained prominence as nations blend traditional military tactics with cyber operations, information warfare, and economic pressure to achieve their objectives without crossing the threshold into open conflict. This gray zone between peace and war has made it increasingly difficult for the international community to respond effectively to aggressive actions that fall short of conventional military invasion.
Digital surveillance capabilities have also transformed the nature of authoritarian control, allowing repressive regimes to monitor their populations more closely than ever before and extend their reach across borders to track dissidents and critics. The export of these surveillance technologies has created new forms of digital colonialism, where authoritarian practices spread from one country to another through technology transfer and training programs.
The private sector has become an increasingly important player in the realm of Netpolitik, with technology companies wielding enormous influence over global information flows and political discourse. The decisions made by a handful of Silicon Valley executives about content moderation, algorithm design, and platform policies can have far-reaching implications for international relations and democratic governance worldwide.
Looking ahead, the rise of artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies promises to further accelerate the evolution of Netpolitik. Deepfake technology threatens to make it even harder to distinguish truth from fiction in the digital realm, while AI-powered influence operations could operate at unprecedented scale and sophistication. The nations that successfully harness these emerging technologies while mitigating their risks will likely emerge as the dominant powers in the digital age.
The challenge for the international community is to develop new norms, institutions, and governance mechanisms that can effectively regulate this digital domain while preserving the benefits of global connectivity and information sharing. This will require unprecedented cooperation between governments, private companies, and civil society organizations to navigate the complex challenges of the networked world.
Gone are the days when diplomatic influence could be wielded exclusively through embassy cables and formal state visits. Today's power brokers are just as likely to shape global narratives through viral social media campaigns, strategic data manipulation, and sophisticated cyber operations as they are through conventional diplomatic channels. This paradigm shift has leveled the playing field in many ways, allowing smaller nations and non-state actors to punch above their weight and challenge the dominance of traditional superpowers.
The internet has become the great equalizer in international politics, providing a platform where asymmetric warfare can flourish. A well-orchestrated disinformation campaign launched from a modest server farm can now have the same impact as a massive military operation, disrupting elections, destabilizing governments, and sowing discord across continents. This has forced policymakers to grapple with new forms of threat that don't fit neatly into existing frameworks of international law and security doctrine.
Social media platforms have emerged as the new public squares of global politics, where battles for hearts and minds are fought in real-time. Nations that master the art of digital persuasion can now bypass traditional media gatekeepers and speak directly to foreign populations, spreading their preferred narratives and undermining their adversaries' credibility. This direct line of communication has broken down many of the barriers that once separated domestic and international audiences, creating a more fluid and unpredictable information environment.
The rise of influencer networks and bot armies has added another layer of complexity to international relations. State and non-state actors alike have learned to harness these digital tools to amplify their messages, create artificial grassroots movements, and manipulate public opinion on a scale never before possible. What appears to be organic citizen activism may actually be the result of carefully orchestrated campaigns designed to advance specific geopolitical agendas.
Economic statecraft has also been revolutionized by digital technologies. Countries now compete fiercely for control over critical digital infrastructure, from undersea cables that carry internet traffic to the semiconductor supply chains that power the modern economy. The ability to control or disrupt these digital arteries has become a significant source of leverage in international negotiations, giving technologically advanced nations new tools for exerting pressure on their rivals.
The phenomenon of "techlash" has emerged as nations begin to push back against the dominance of global technology platforms and assert greater control over their digital sovereignty. Countries are increasingly implementing data localization requirements, content moderation rules, and national internet filtering systems, creating a more fragmented and balkanized online world. This trend toward digital nationalism threatens to undermine the original vision of the internet as a borderless global commons.
Cyber espionage has become the new norm in intelligence gathering, with nation-states routinely infiltrating each other's networks to steal sensitive information, monitor communications, and position themselves for potential future conflicts. The attribution problem in cyberspace has created a particularly thorny challenge for international relations, as it's often difficult to definitively prove who is behind a particular attack, leading to accusations and counter-accusations that can poison diplomatic relationships.
The concept of "hybrid warfare" has gained prominence as nations blend traditional military tactics with cyber operations, information warfare, and economic pressure to achieve their objectives without crossing the threshold into open conflict. This gray zone between peace and war has made it increasingly difficult for the international community to respond effectively to aggressive actions that fall short of conventional military invasion.
Digital surveillance capabilities have also transformed the nature of authoritarian control, allowing repressive regimes to monitor their populations more closely than ever before and extend their reach across borders to track dissidents and critics. The export of these surveillance technologies has created new forms of digital colonialism, where authoritarian practices spread from one country to another through technology transfer and training programs.
The private sector has become an increasingly important player in the realm of Netpolitik, with technology companies wielding enormous influence over global information flows and political discourse. The decisions made by a handful of Silicon Valley executives about content moderation, algorithm design, and platform policies can have far-reaching implications for international relations and democratic governance worldwide.
Looking ahead, the rise of artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies promises to further accelerate the evolution of Netpolitik. Deepfake technology threatens to make it even harder to distinguish truth from fiction in the digital realm, while AI-powered influence operations could operate at unprecedented scale and sophistication. The nations that successfully harness these emerging technologies while mitigating their risks will likely emerge as the dominant powers in the digital age.
The challenge for the international community is to develop new norms, institutions, and governance mechanisms that can effectively regulate this digital domain while preserving the benefits of global connectivity and information sharing. This will require unprecedented cooperation between governments, private companies, and civil society organizations to navigate the complex challenges of the networked world.
1. **Emergence** /ɪˈmɜrdʒəns/ (US), /ɪˈmɜːdʒəns/ (UK)
*Meaning*: The process of coming into existence
2. **Fundamentally** /ˌfʌndəˈmentəli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: In a basic and important way
3. **Shifted the landscape**
*Meaning*: Changed the basic nature of a situation
4. **Ushering in**
*Meaning*: Introducing or bringing about something new
5. **Battlegrounds** /ˈbætəlˌɡraʊndz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Areas where conflicts take place
6. **Influence** /ˈɪnfluəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: The power to affect others
7. **Caught off balance**
*Meaning*: Surprised and unprepared
8. **Foreign policy establishments**
*Meaning*: Government institutions handling international relations
9. **Reinvent** /ˌriɪnˈvent/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Change something completely
10. **Statecraft** /ˈsteɪtˌkræft/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: The art of conducting government affairs
11. **Gone are the days**
*Meaning*: Something no longer happens as it used to
12. **Diplomatic influence**
*Meaning*: Power exercised through international negotiations
13. **Wielded** /ˈwildəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Used effectively as a tool or weapon
14. **Embassy cables**
*Meaning*: Official diplomatic communications
15. **State visits**
*Meaning*: Official trips by government leaders
16. **Power brokers**
*Meaning*: People who influence important decisions
17. **Shape global narratives**
*Meaning*: Influence how world events are understood
18. **Viral social media campaigns**
*Meaning*: Online content that spreads rapidly
19. **Strategic** /strəˈtidʒɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Relating to long-term planning
20. **Data manipulation**
*Meaning*: Changing information to serve specific purposes
21. **Sophisticated** /səˈfɪstəˌkeɪtəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Highly developed and complex
22. **Cyber operations**
*Meaning*: Activities conducted in cyberspace
23. **Conventional diplomatic channels**
*Meaning*: Traditional methods of international communication
24. **Paradigm shift**
*Meaning*: Fundamental change in approach
25. **Leveled the playing field**
*Meaning*: Made competition more equal
26. **Non-state actors**
*Meaning*: Organizations that aren't governments
27. **Punch above their weight**
*Meaning*: Have more influence than expected
28. **Dominance** /ˈdɑmənəns/ (US), /ˈdɒmɪnəns/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Power and control over others
29. **Superpowers** /ˈsupərˌpaʊərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Nations with enormous international influence
30. **Great equalizer**
*Meaning*: Something that makes everyone equal
31. **Asymmetric warfare**
*Meaning*: Conflict between unequal forces
32. **Well-orchestrated**
*Meaning*: Carefully planned and coordinated
33. **Disinformation** /ˌdɪsɪnfərˈmeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: False information spread deliberately
34. **Server farm**
*Meaning*: Large collection of computer servers
35. **Destabilizing** /diˈsteɪbəˌlaɪzɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Making something unstable
36. **Sowing discord**
*Meaning*: Creating disagreement and conflict
37. **Grapple with**
*Meaning*: Struggle to deal with
38. **Fit neatly into**
*Meaning*: Match well with existing categories
39. **Frameworks** /ˈfreɪmˌwɜrks/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic structures for understanding
40. **Security doctrine**
*Meaning*: Principles governing national defense
41. **Public squares**
*Meaning*: Places where public discussion occurs
42. **Battles for hearts and minds**
*Meaning*: Efforts to win people's support and beliefs
43. **Master the art of**
*Meaning*: Become very skilled at something
44. **Digital persuasion**
*Meaning*: Convincing people through online methods
45. **Bypass** /ˈbaɪˌpæs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Go around or avoid
46. **Gatekeepers** /ˈɡeɪtˌkipərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: People who control access
47. **Preferred narratives**
*Meaning*: Stories that support one's position
48. **Adversaries** /ˈædvərˌseriz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Opponents or enemies
49. **Credibility** /ˌkredəˈbɪləti/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Quality of being believed or trusted
50. **Direct line of communication**
*Meaning*: Immediate connection between parties
51. **Broken down barriers**
*Meaning*: Removed obstacles or divisions
52. **Domestic and international audiences**
*Meaning*: People within a country and around the world
53. **Fluid** /ˈfluəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Changing easily and smoothly
54. **Unpredictable** /ˌʌnprɪˈdɪktəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not able to be foreseen
55. **Influencer networks**
*Meaning*: Groups of people with online influence
56. **Bot armies**
*Meaning*: Large numbers of automated accounts
57. **Layer of complexity**
*Meaning*: Additional level of difficulty
58. **Harness** /ˈhɑrnəs/ (US), /ˈhɑːnəs/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Control and use effectively
59. **Amplify** /ˈæmplɪˌfaɪ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Make louder or stronger
60. **Artificial grassroots movements**
*Meaning*: Fake citizen organizations
61. **Manipulate** /məˈnɪpjəˌleɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Control or influence cleverly
62. **Scale** /skeɪl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Size or extent
63. **Organic citizen activism**
*Meaning*: Genuine political activity by ordinary people
64. **Orchestrated campaigns**
*Meaning*: Carefully planned operations
65. **Geopolitical agendas**
*Meaning*: Plans related to international politics
66. **Economic statecraft**
*Meaning*: Using economic tools for political goals
67. **Revolutionized** /ˌrevəˈluʃəˌnaɪzd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Changed completely and dramatically
68. **Compete fiercely**
*Meaning*: Try very hard to win against others
69. **Critical digital infrastructure**
*Meaning*: Essential computer and internet systems
70. **Undersea cables**
*Meaning*: Internet connections on the ocean floor
71. **Semiconductor supply chains**
*Meaning*: Production networks for computer chips
72. **Digital arteries**
*Meaning*: Main pathways for digital information
73. **Leverage** /ˈlevərɪdʒ/ (US), /ˈliːvərɪdʒ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Power to influence
74. **Exerting pressure**
*Meaning*: Applying force or influence
75. **Rivals** /ˈraɪvəlz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Competitors or opponents
76. **Techlash** /ˈtekˌlæʃ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Negative reaction against technology companies
77. **Push back against**
*Meaning*: Resist or oppose
78. **Assert control**
*Meaning*: Take charge or establish authority
79. **Digital sovereignty**
*Meaning*: A nation's control over its digital space
80. **Data localization**
*Meaning*: Requiring data to be stored within a country
81. **Content moderation**
*Meaning*: Controlling what information is allowed
82. **National internet filtering**
*Meaning*: Government blocking of online content
83. **Fragmented** /ˈfræɡməntəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Broken into separate pieces
84. **Balkanized** /ˈbɔlkəˌnaɪzd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Divided into hostile groups
85. **Digital nationalism**
*Meaning*: Prioritizing national control over technology
86. **Undermine** /ˌʌndərˈmaɪn/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Weaken gradually
87. **Borderless global commons**
*Meaning*: Shared space without national boundaries
88. **Cyber espionage**
*Meaning*: Spying using computer networks
89. **Intelligence gathering**
*Meaning*: Collecting secret information
90. **Infiltrating** /ˈɪnfəlˌtreɪtɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Entering secretly
91. **Attribution problem**
*Meaning*: Difficulty determining who is responsible
92. **Definitively** /dɪˈfɪnətɪvli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: In a way that settles the matter
93. **Counter-accusations**
*Meaning*: Charges made in response to accusations
94. **Poison diplomatic relationships**
*Meaning*: Damage international connections
95. **Hybrid warfare**
*Meaning*: Combining different types of conflict
96. **Gained prominence**
*Meaning*: Become more important or noticeable
97. **Threshold** /ˈθreʃˌhoʊld/ (US), /ˈθreʃˌhəʊld/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Point where something begins
98. **Gray zone**
*Meaning*: Unclear area between defined categories
99. **Fall short of**
*Meaning*: Not reach the level of
100. **Surveillance** /sərˈveɪləns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Close observation
101. **Authoritarian control**
*Meaning*: Demanding strict obedience to authority
102. **Repressive regimes**
*Meaning*: Governments that severely limit freedoms
103. **Extend their reach**
*Meaning*: Increase their influence or control
104. **Track dissidents**
*Meaning*: Monitor political opponents
105. **Critics** /ˈkrɪtɪks/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: People who express disapproval
106. **Export** /ɪkˈspɔrt/ (US), /ɪkˈspɔːt/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Send to other countries
107. **Digital colonialism**
*Meaning*: Using technology to control other nations
108. **Technology transfer**
*Meaning*: Sharing technical knowledge
109. **Wielding enormous influence**
*Meaning*: Having great power
110. **Information flows**
*Meaning*: Movement of data
111. **Political discourse**
*Meaning*: Discussion about government and politics
112. **Silicon Valley executives**
*Meaning*: Leaders of major technology companies
113. **Algorithm design**
*Meaning*: Creating computer decision-making rules
114. **Platform policies**
*Meaning*: Rules governing online services
115. **Far-reaching implications**
*Meaning*: Effects that extend widely
116. **Democratic governance**
*Meaning*: Government by the people
117. **Looking ahead**
*Meaning*: Thinking about the future
118. **Machine learning**
*Meaning*: Computer systems that improve automatically
119. **Accelerate** /əkˈseləˌreɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Increase speed
120. **Deepfake** /ˈdipˌfeɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Fake video or audio made with AI
121. **Digital realm**
*Meaning*: Online or virtual environment
122. **AI-powered**
*Meaning*: Using artificial intelligence
123. **Unprecedented** /ʌnˈpresədentəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Never done or known before
124. **Sophistication** /səˌfɪstəˈkeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Advanced complexity
125. **Successfully harness**
*Meaning*: Effectively control and use
126. **Emerging technologies**
*Meaning*: New technologies being developed
127. **Mitigating** /ˈmɪtəˌɡeɪtɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Reducing the severity of
128. **Dominant powers**
*Meaning*: Most influential nations
129. **Governance mechanisms**
*Meaning*: Systems for controlling and managing
130. **Regulate** /ˈreɡjəˌleɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Control through rules
131. **Digital domain**
*Meaning*: Area of computer and internet activity
132. **Preserving** /prɪˈzɜrvɪŋ/ (US), /prɪˈzɜːvɪŋ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Keeping safe from harm
133. **Global connectivity**
*Meaning*: Worldwide connection through technology
134. **Civil society organizations**
*Meaning*: Non-governmental groups serving public interests
135. **Navigate** /ˈnævəˌɡeɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Find a way through something difficult
136. **Networked world**
*Meaning*: Globally connected society
*Meaning*: The process of coming into existence
2. **Fundamentally** /ˌfʌndəˈmentəli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: In a basic and important way
3. **Shifted the landscape**
*Meaning*: Changed the basic nature of a situation
4. **Ushering in**
*Meaning*: Introducing or bringing about something new
5. **Battlegrounds** /ˈbætəlˌɡraʊndz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Areas where conflicts take place
6. **Influence** /ˈɪnfluəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: The power to affect others
7. **Caught off balance**
*Meaning*: Surprised and unprepared
8. **Foreign policy establishments**
*Meaning*: Government institutions handling international relations
9. **Reinvent** /ˌriɪnˈvent/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Change something completely
10. **Statecraft** /ˈsteɪtˌkræft/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: The art of conducting government affairs
11. **Gone are the days**
*Meaning*: Something no longer happens as it used to
12. **Diplomatic influence**
*Meaning*: Power exercised through international negotiations
13. **Wielded** /ˈwildəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Used effectively as a tool or weapon
14. **Embassy cables**
*Meaning*: Official diplomatic communications
15. **State visits**
*Meaning*: Official trips by government leaders
16. **Power brokers**
*Meaning*: People who influence important decisions
17. **Shape global narratives**
*Meaning*: Influence how world events are understood
18. **Viral social media campaigns**
*Meaning*: Online content that spreads rapidly
19. **Strategic** /strəˈtidʒɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Relating to long-term planning
20. **Data manipulation**
*Meaning*: Changing information to serve specific purposes
21. **Sophisticated** /səˈfɪstəˌkeɪtəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Highly developed and complex
22. **Cyber operations**
*Meaning*: Activities conducted in cyberspace
23. **Conventional diplomatic channels**
*Meaning*: Traditional methods of international communication
24. **Paradigm shift**
*Meaning*: Fundamental change in approach
25. **Leveled the playing field**
*Meaning*: Made competition more equal
26. **Non-state actors**
*Meaning*: Organizations that aren't governments
27. **Punch above their weight**
*Meaning*: Have more influence than expected
28. **Dominance** /ˈdɑmənəns/ (US), /ˈdɒmɪnəns/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Power and control over others
29. **Superpowers** /ˈsupərˌpaʊərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Nations with enormous international influence
30. **Great equalizer**
*Meaning*: Something that makes everyone equal
31. **Asymmetric warfare**
*Meaning*: Conflict between unequal forces
32. **Well-orchestrated**
*Meaning*: Carefully planned and coordinated
33. **Disinformation** /ˌdɪsɪnfərˈmeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: False information spread deliberately
34. **Server farm**
*Meaning*: Large collection of computer servers
35. **Destabilizing** /diˈsteɪbəˌlaɪzɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Making something unstable
36. **Sowing discord**
*Meaning*: Creating disagreement and conflict
37. **Grapple with**
*Meaning*: Struggle to deal with
38. **Fit neatly into**
*Meaning*: Match well with existing categories
39. **Frameworks** /ˈfreɪmˌwɜrks/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic structures for understanding
40. **Security doctrine**
*Meaning*: Principles governing national defense
41. **Public squares**
*Meaning*: Places where public discussion occurs
42. **Battles for hearts and minds**
*Meaning*: Efforts to win people's support and beliefs
43. **Master the art of**
*Meaning*: Become very skilled at something
44. **Digital persuasion**
*Meaning*: Convincing people through online methods
45. **Bypass** /ˈbaɪˌpæs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Go around or avoid
46. **Gatekeepers** /ˈɡeɪtˌkipərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: People who control access
47. **Preferred narratives**
*Meaning*: Stories that support one's position
48. **Adversaries** /ˈædvərˌseriz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Opponents or enemies
49. **Credibility** /ˌkredəˈbɪləti/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Quality of being believed or trusted
50. **Direct line of communication**
*Meaning*: Immediate connection between parties
51. **Broken down barriers**
*Meaning*: Removed obstacles or divisions
52. **Domestic and international audiences**
*Meaning*: People within a country and around the world
53. **Fluid** /ˈfluəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Changing easily and smoothly
54. **Unpredictable** /ˌʌnprɪˈdɪktəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not able to be foreseen
55. **Influencer networks**
*Meaning*: Groups of people with online influence
56. **Bot armies**
*Meaning*: Large numbers of automated accounts
57. **Layer of complexity**
*Meaning*: Additional level of difficulty
58. **Harness** /ˈhɑrnəs/ (US), /ˈhɑːnəs/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Control and use effectively
59. **Amplify** /ˈæmplɪˌfaɪ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Make louder or stronger
60. **Artificial grassroots movements**
*Meaning*: Fake citizen organizations
61. **Manipulate** /məˈnɪpjəˌleɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Control or influence cleverly
62. **Scale** /skeɪl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Size or extent
63. **Organic citizen activism**
*Meaning*: Genuine political activity by ordinary people
64. **Orchestrated campaigns**
*Meaning*: Carefully planned operations
65. **Geopolitical agendas**
*Meaning*: Plans related to international politics
66. **Economic statecraft**
*Meaning*: Using economic tools for political goals
67. **Revolutionized** /ˌrevəˈluʃəˌnaɪzd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Changed completely and dramatically
68. **Compete fiercely**
*Meaning*: Try very hard to win against others
69. **Critical digital infrastructure**
*Meaning*: Essential computer and internet systems
70. **Undersea cables**
*Meaning*: Internet connections on the ocean floor
71. **Semiconductor supply chains**
*Meaning*: Production networks for computer chips
72. **Digital arteries**
*Meaning*: Main pathways for digital information
73. **Leverage** /ˈlevərɪdʒ/ (US), /ˈliːvərɪdʒ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Power to influence
74. **Exerting pressure**
*Meaning*: Applying force or influence
75. **Rivals** /ˈraɪvəlz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Competitors or opponents
76. **Techlash** /ˈtekˌlæʃ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Negative reaction against technology companies
77. **Push back against**
*Meaning*: Resist or oppose
78. **Assert control**
*Meaning*: Take charge or establish authority
79. **Digital sovereignty**
*Meaning*: A nation's control over its digital space
80. **Data localization**
*Meaning*: Requiring data to be stored within a country
81. **Content moderation**
*Meaning*: Controlling what information is allowed
82. **National internet filtering**
*Meaning*: Government blocking of online content
83. **Fragmented** /ˈfræɡməntəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Broken into separate pieces
84. **Balkanized** /ˈbɔlkəˌnaɪzd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Divided into hostile groups
85. **Digital nationalism**
*Meaning*: Prioritizing national control over technology
86. **Undermine** /ˌʌndərˈmaɪn/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Weaken gradually
87. **Borderless global commons**
*Meaning*: Shared space without national boundaries
88. **Cyber espionage**
*Meaning*: Spying using computer networks
89. **Intelligence gathering**
*Meaning*: Collecting secret information
90. **Infiltrating** /ˈɪnfəlˌtreɪtɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Entering secretly
91. **Attribution problem**
*Meaning*: Difficulty determining who is responsible
92. **Definitively** /dɪˈfɪnətɪvli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: In a way that settles the matter
93. **Counter-accusations**
*Meaning*: Charges made in response to accusations
94. **Poison diplomatic relationships**
*Meaning*: Damage international connections
95. **Hybrid warfare**
*Meaning*: Combining different types of conflict
96. **Gained prominence**
*Meaning*: Become more important or noticeable
97. **Threshold** /ˈθreʃˌhoʊld/ (US), /ˈθreʃˌhəʊld/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Point where something begins
98. **Gray zone**
*Meaning*: Unclear area between defined categories
99. **Fall short of**
*Meaning*: Not reach the level of
100. **Surveillance** /sərˈveɪləns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Close observation
101. **Authoritarian control**
*Meaning*: Demanding strict obedience to authority
102. **Repressive regimes**
*Meaning*: Governments that severely limit freedoms
103. **Extend their reach**
*Meaning*: Increase their influence or control
104. **Track dissidents**
*Meaning*: Monitor political opponents
105. **Critics** /ˈkrɪtɪks/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: People who express disapproval
106. **Export** /ɪkˈspɔrt/ (US), /ɪkˈspɔːt/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Send to other countries
107. **Digital colonialism**
*Meaning*: Using technology to control other nations
108. **Technology transfer**
*Meaning*: Sharing technical knowledge
109. **Wielding enormous influence**
*Meaning*: Having great power
110. **Information flows**
*Meaning*: Movement of data
111. **Political discourse**
*Meaning*: Discussion about government and politics
112. **Silicon Valley executives**
*Meaning*: Leaders of major technology companies
113. **Algorithm design**
*Meaning*: Creating computer decision-making rules
114. **Platform policies**
*Meaning*: Rules governing online services
115. **Far-reaching implications**
*Meaning*: Effects that extend widely
116. **Democratic governance**
*Meaning*: Government by the people
117. **Looking ahead**
*Meaning*: Thinking about the future
118. **Machine learning**
*Meaning*: Computer systems that improve automatically
119. **Accelerate** /əkˈseləˌreɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Increase speed
120. **Deepfake** /ˈdipˌfeɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Fake video or audio made with AI
121. **Digital realm**
*Meaning*: Online or virtual environment
122. **AI-powered**
*Meaning*: Using artificial intelligence
123. **Unprecedented** /ʌnˈpresədentəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Never done or known before
124. **Sophistication** /səˌfɪstəˈkeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Advanced complexity
125. **Successfully harness**
*Meaning*: Effectively control and use
126. **Emerging technologies**
*Meaning*: New technologies being developed
127. **Mitigating** /ˈmɪtəˌɡeɪtɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Reducing the severity of
128. **Dominant powers**
*Meaning*: Most influential nations
129. **Governance mechanisms**
*Meaning*: Systems for controlling and managing
130. **Regulate** /ˈreɡjəˌleɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Control through rules
131. **Digital domain**
*Meaning*: Area of computer and internet activity
132. **Preserving** /prɪˈzɜrvɪŋ/ (US), /prɪˈzɜːvɪŋ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Keeping safe from harm
133. **Global connectivity**
*Meaning*: Worldwide connection through technology
134. **Civil society organizations**
*Meaning*: Non-governmental groups serving public interests
135. **Navigate** /ˈnævəˌɡeɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Find a way through something difficult
136. **Networked world**
*Meaning*: Globally connected society
Contractions: ’ve been, ’ll’ve been
Contractions are shortened forms of words or combinations of words commonly used in spoken and informal written English to make sentences quicker and easier to say.
The contraction '’ve been' is a shortened form of 'have been'. It is often used in the present perfect continuous tense. For example:
- "I’ve been working here for two years." (I have been working)
- "They’ve been waiting outside." (They have been waiting)
This contraction combines the auxiliary verb 'have' with 'been' and is followed by the -ing form of the main verb to show an action that started in the past and continues into the present or has recently stopped.
The contraction '’ll’ve been' is less common and quite informal. It is a contraction of 'will have been', used in the future perfect continuous tense. For example:
- "By next year, I’ll’ve been living here for a decade." (By next year, I will have been living here)
This contraction combines 'will' + 'have' + 'been' to express the duration of an action that will be ongoing up until a point in the future.
The contraction '’ve been' is a shortened form of 'have been'. It is often used in the present perfect continuous tense. For example:
- "I’ve been working here for two years." (I have been working)
- "They’ve been waiting outside." (They have been waiting)
This contraction combines the auxiliary verb 'have' with 'been' and is followed by the -ing form of the main verb to show an action that started in the past and continues into the present or has recently stopped.
The contraction '’ll’ve been' is less common and quite informal. It is a contraction of 'will have been', used in the future perfect continuous tense. For example:
- "By next year, I’ll’ve been living here for a decade." (By next year, I will have been living here)
This contraction combines 'will' + 'have' + 'been' to express the duration of an action that will be ongoing up until a point in the future.