Intermediate150 min
The perfect aspect
The perfect aspect looks back from one time to another and emphasises that an action is completed before another time. In some cases, the exact time may be unimportant or unknown. Sometimes the action is incomplete, started in the past and is still relevant now.
| Verb form | Active | Passive |
|---|---|---|
| Present perfect | The animals have learnt to change their behaviour. | The project has been praised by environmentalists. |
| Past perfect | She had studied the animals for years before the trip. | In the past, a lot of animals had been killed by poachers. |
| Future perfect | By next year, they will have trained the animals to behave in a diff erent way. | If we don’t act now, the ecosystem will have been destroyed by 2050. |
| Perfect infinitive | The project didn’t appear to have caused any problems. | The cameras seemed to have been accepted by the animals. |
Present perfect
We use the present perfect for an action that was completed in the past when we don’t know or don’t say exactly when. We often use it to talk about our experiences.
I’ve seen gorillas in the wild. I haven’t been to New York.
Compare this to the past simple, where we usually state the time the action took place.
I saw gorillas in the wild last year.
We also use the present perfect with for or since for an action that started in the past and still continues, or has a present result.
I’ve lived here for two years. (I still live here.)
I’ve known Ali since we were at school. (I still know him.)
Bats have been protected for many years. (They still are.)
I can’t play tennis because I’ve hurt my arm. (a past action with a consequence in the present)
Past perfect
We use the past perfect to look back from a time in the past to a time before that.
I couldn’t call you because my phone had been stolen.
Future perfect
We use the future perfect to look back from a time in the future to a time before that.
In ten years’ time, we will have saved these animals.
In six months, we hope the animals will have been trained.
Perfect infinitive
We use the perfect infinitive after verbs like seem and appear and modals like need and ought to look back to a previous period.
He appeared to have forgotten us.
Some of the elephants seem to have been killed.
We use the present perfect for an action that was completed in the past when we don’t know or don’t say exactly when. We often use it to talk about our experiences.
I’ve seen gorillas in the wild. I haven’t been to New York.
Compare this to the past simple, where we usually state the time the action took place.
I saw gorillas in the wild last year.
We also use the present perfect with for or since for an action that started in the past and still continues, or has a present result.
I’ve lived here for two years. (I still live here.)
I’ve known Ali since we were at school. (I still know him.)
Bats have been protected for many years. (They still are.)
I can’t play tennis because I’ve hurt my arm. (a past action with a consequence in the present)
Past perfect
We use the past perfect to look back from a time in the past to a time before that.
I couldn’t call you because my phone had been stolen.
Future perfect
We use the future perfect to look back from a time in the future to a time before that.
In ten years’ time, we will have saved these animals.
In six months, we hope the animals will have been trained.
Perfect infinitive
We use the perfect infinitive after verbs like seem and appear and modals like need and ought to look back to a previous period.
He appeared to have forgotten us.
Some of the elephants seem to have been killed.
Quiz
Question 1 of 10
Select the sentence that correctly uses the present perfect to talk about an action completed in the past with an unknown time.
I saw gorillas in the wild last year.
I have seen gorillas in the wild.
Economic Development: Building Prosperity from the Ground Up
Economic development stands as one of humanity's most complex and consequential challenges, requiring nations to navigate treacherous waters while building sustainable prosperity for their citizens. The journey from poverty to affluence is neither straightforward nor guaranteed, as countless countries have discovered when their best-laid plans have gone awry. Success demands more than simply throwing money at problems – it requires a delicate balancing act that weighs immediate needs against long-term objectives while fostering an environment where innovation and entrepreneurship can flourish.
At its core, economic development involves transforming agrarian societies into diversified economies capable of competing on the global stage. This metamorphosis typically unfolds over decades, requiring massive investments in infrastructure, education, and technology. Countries that successfully make this transition often find themselves punching above their weight in international markets, while those that fail to adapt risk being left behind as the world economy moves forward at breakneck speed.
The foundation of any successful development strategy lies in building robust institutions that can withstand political turbulence and economic shocks. Rule of law, transparent governance, and effective regulatory frameworks serve as the bedrock upon which all other progress depends. Without these fundamentals firmly in place, even the most ambitious development programs are likely to fall flat, as corruption and inefficiency eat away at potential gains like termites in wooden foundations.
Human capital development represents another crucial piece of the puzzle. Nations that invest heavily in education and healthcare typically see their economies take off as educated populations drive innovation and productivity gains. The old saying that "knowledge is power" has never been more relevant than in today's information-driven economy, where countries rich in natural resources can find themselves outpaced by nations that have invested wisely in their people's potential.
Infrastructure development often serves as the catalyst that kickstarts broader economic transformation. Modern transportation networks, reliable energy systems, and cutting-edge telecommunications infrastructure create the conditions necessary for businesses to thrive and expand. Countries that scrimp on infrastructure investments often find themselves stuck in a vicious cycle where poor connectivity hampers growth, which in turn limits the resources available for necessary improvements.
The role of international trade cannot be overstated in the development equation. Countries that successfully integrate into global value chains often experience rapid economic growth as they tap into larger markets and benefit from technology transfer. However, this integration comes with strings attached – nations must be prepared to compete with the best in the world while ensuring their domestic industries don't get steamrolled by more efficient international competitors.
Financial sector development plays a pivotal role in channeling savings into productive investments. Well-functioning banks and capital markets help entrepreneurs get their ventures off the ground while providing established businesses with the capital they need to expand operations. Countries with underdeveloped financial systems often struggle to make headway as promising business ideas never see the light of day due to lack of funding.
Foreign direct investment has become increasingly important as countries seek to bridge the gap between their development aspirations and domestic resource constraints. Multinational corporations bring not only capital but also technical expertise, management know-how, and access to international markets. However, attracting quality investment requires more than just rolling out the red carpet – countries must demonstrate political stability, economic competitiveness, and respect for property rights.
Agricultural modernization remains critical for many developing nations, where large portions of the population still depend on farming for their livelihoods. Introducing new technologies, improving irrigation systems, and developing value-added processing capabilities can transform subsistence agriculture into a dynamic sector that feeds growing urban populations while generating export revenues.
The manufacturing sector has traditionally served as the engine of growth for developing economies, providing employment for workers transitioning from agriculture while building the technical capabilities necessary for more advanced industries. Countries that have successfully climbed the ladder of development typically start with labor-intensive manufacturing before gradually moving up the value chain toward more sophisticated products and services.
Environmental sustainability has emerged as a non-negotiable aspect of modern development strategies. The old model of "grow first, clean up later" has proven both costly and counterproductive, as environmental degradation undermines long-term economic prospects. Smart development approaches now emphasize green technologies and sustainable practices that allow countries to have their cake and eat it too – achieving growth while protecting natural resources.
The service sector increasingly drives economic growth in advanced economies, highlighting the importance of developing strong educational systems and fostering innovation. Countries that fail to make this transition often find themselves caught in the middle-income trap, where rising wages price them out of low-cost manufacturing while they lack the capabilities to compete in high-value services.
Technology transfer and innovation policies have become central to development strategies as countries recognize that copying existing technologies only gets them so far. Building domestic research and development capabilities requires significant investments and patience, but countries that crack this code often find themselves at the forefront of emerging industries.
Regional integration and cooperation can provide smaller countries with opportunities to access larger markets and benefit from economies of scale. Trade agreements and regional partnerships allow nations to pool resources and coordinate policies in ways that benefit all participants, creating win-win scenarios that might not be possible through purely national approaches.
Looking ahead, successful economic development will increasingly depend on countries' ability to adapt to rapid technological change while ensuring that the benefits of growth are broadly shared. The nations that thrive will be those that can strike the right balance between embracing innovation and maintaining social cohesion, creating prosperity that lifts all boats rather than just a privileged few.
At its core, economic development involves transforming agrarian societies into diversified economies capable of competing on the global stage. This metamorphosis typically unfolds over decades, requiring massive investments in infrastructure, education, and technology. Countries that successfully make this transition often find themselves punching above their weight in international markets, while those that fail to adapt risk being left behind as the world economy moves forward at breakneck speed.
The foundation of any successful development strategy lies in building robust institutions that can withstand political turbulence and economic shocks. Rule of law, transparent governance, and effective regulatory frameworks serve as the bedrock upon which all other progress depends. Without these fundamentals firmly in place, even the most ambitious development programs are likely to fall flat, as corruption and inefficiency eat away at potential gains like termites in wooden foundations.
Human capital development represents another crucial piece of the puzzle. Nations that invest heavily in education and healthcare typically see their economies take off as educated populations drive innovation and productivity gains. The old saying that "knowledge is power" has never been more relevant than in today's information-driven economy, where countries rich in natural resources can find themselves outpaced by nations that have invested wisely in their people's potential.
Infrastructure development often serves as the catalyst that kickstarts broader economic transformation. Modern transportation networks, reliable energy systems, and cutting-edge telecommunications infrastructure create the conditions necessary for businesses to thrive and expand. Countries that scrimp on infrastructure investments often find themselves stuck in a vicious cycle where poor connectivity hampers growth, which in turn limits the resources available for necessary improvements.
The role of international trade cannot be overstated in the development equation. Countries that successfully integrate into global value chains often experience rapid economic growth as they tap into larger markets and benefit from technology transfer. However, this integration comes with strings attached – nations must be prepared to compete with the best in the world while ensuring their domestic industries don't get steamrolled by more efficient international competitors.
Financial sector development plays a pivotal role in channeling savings into productive investments. Well-functioning banks and capital markets help entrepreneurs get their ventures off the ground while providing established businesses with the capital they need to expand operations. Countries with underdeveloped financial systems often struggle to make headway as promising business ideas never see the light of day due to lack of funding.
Foreign direct investment has become increasingly important as countries seek to bridge the gap between their development aspirations and domestic resource constraints. Multinational corporations bring not only capital but also technical expertise, management know-how, and access to international markets. However, attracting quality investment requires more than just rolling out the red carpet – countries must demonstrate political stability, economic competitiveness, and respect for property rights.
Agricultural modernization remains critical for many developing nations, where large portions of the population still depend on farming for their livelihoods. Introducing new technologies, improving irrigation systems, and developing value-added processing capabilities can transform subsistence agriculture into a dynamic sector that feeds growing urban populations while generating export revenues.
The manufacturing sector has traditionally served as the engine of growth for developing economies, providing employment for workers transitioning from agriculture while building the technical capabilities necessary for more advanced industries. Countries that have successfully climbed the ladder of development typically start with labor-intensive manufacturing before gradually moving up the value chain toward more sophisticated products and services.
Environmental sustainability has emerged as a non-negotiable aspect of modern development strategies. The old model of "grow first, clean up later" has proven both costly and counterproductive, as environmental degradation undermines long-term economic prospects. Smart development approaches now emphasize green technologies and sustainable practices that allow countries to have their cake and eat it too – achieving growth while protecting natural resources.
The service sector increasingly drives economic growth in advanced economies, highlighting the importance of developing strong educational systems and fostering innovation. Countries that fail to make this transition often find themselves caught in the middle-income trap, where rising wages price them out of low-cost manufacturing while they lack the capabilities to compete in high-value services.
Technology transfer and innovation policies have become central to development strategies as countries recognize that copying existing technologies only gets them so far. Building domestic research and development capabilities requires significant investments and patience, but countries that crack this code often find themselves at the forefront of emerging industries.
Regional integration and cooperation can provide smaller countries with opportunities to access larger markets and benefit from economies of scale. Trade agreements and regional partnerships allow nations to pool resources and coordinate policies in ways that benefit all participants, creating win-win scenarios that might not be possible through purely national approaches.
Looking ahead, successful economic development will increasingly depend on countries' ability to adapt to rapid technological change while ensuring that the benefits of growth are broadly shared. The nations that thrive will be those that can strike the right balance between embracing innovation and maintaining social cohesion, creating prosperity that lifts all boats rather than just a privileged few.
1. **Consequential** /ˌkɑnsəˈkwenʃəl/ (US), /ˌkɒnsəˈkwenʃəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Important or significant
2. **Navigate treacherous waters**
*Meaning*: Deal with dangerous or difficult situations
3. **Sustainable** /səˈsteɪnəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Able to continue without causing damage
4. **Prosperity** /prɑˈsperəti/ (US), /prɒˈsperəti/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Success and wealth
5. **Affluence** /ˈæfluəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Wealth and abundance
6. **Straightforward** /ˌstreɪtˈfɔrwərd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Simple and easy to understand
7. **Best-laid plans**
*Meaning*: Carefully made preparations
8. **Gone awry**
*Meaning*: Turned out badly or wrongly
9. **Throwing money at problems**
*Meaning*: Trying to solve issues just by spending money
10. **Delicate balancing act**
*Meaning*: Careful management of competing demands
11. **Weighs immediate needs**
*Meaning*: Considers urgent requirements
12. **Long-term objectives**
*Meaning*: Goals for the distant future
13. **Fostering** /ˈfɔstərɪŋ/ (US), /ˈfɒstərɪŋ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Encouraging development
14. **Entrepreneurship** /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜrʃɪp/ (US), /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːʃɪp/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Starting and running businesses
15. **Flourish** /ˈflɜrɪʃ/ (US), /ˈflʌrɪʃ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Grow successfully
16. **At its core**
*Meaning*: Fundamentally; essentially
17. **Transforming** /trænsˈfɔrmɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Changing completely
18. **Agrarian** /əˈɡreriən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Related to farming and agriculture
19. **Diversified** /daɪˈvɜrsəˌfaɪd/ (US), /daɪˈvɜːsɪfaɪd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Having variety; not dependent on one thing
20. **Global stage**
*Meaning*: International level of competition
21. **Metamorphosis** /ˌmetəˈmɔrfəsəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Complete transformation
22. **Unfolds** /ʌnˈfoʊldz/ (US), /ʌnˈfəʊldz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Develops gradually
23. **Massive investments**
*Meaning*: Very large amounts of money spent
24. **Infrastructure** /ˈɪnfrəˌstrʌktʃər/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic facilities and systems
25. **Make this transition**
*Meaning*: Successfully change from one state to another
26. **Punching above their weight**
*Meaning*: Performing better than expected
27. **International markets**
*Meaning*: Global trading systems
28. **Fail to adapt**
*Meaning*: Unable to change with new conditions
29. **Being left behind**
*Meaning*: Not keeping up with progress
30. **Breakneck speed**
*Meaning*: Extremely fast pace
31. **Foundation** /faʊnˈdeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic supporting structure
32. **Development strategy**
*Meaning*: Plan for economic growth
33. **Building robust institutions**
*Meaning*: Creating strong organizations
34. **Withstand** /wɪðˈstænd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Resist or survive
35. **Political turbulence**
*Meaning*: Instability in government
36. **Economic shocks**
*Meaning*: Sudden negative changes in the economy
37. **Rule of law**
*Meaning*: System where laws apply to everyone equally
38. **Transparent** /trænsˈperənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Open and honest
39. **Governance** /ˈɡʌvərnəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: System of management and control
40. **Regulatory frameworks**
*Meaning*: Systems of rules and oversight
41. **Bedrock** /ˈbedˌrɑk/ (US), /ˈbedˌrɒk/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Fundamental foundation
42. **Firmly in place**
*Meaning*: Securely established
43. **Ambitious** /æmˈbɪʃəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Having big goals
44. **Fall flat**
*Meaning*: Fail completely
45. **Corruption** /kəˈrʌpʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Dishonest behavior by people in power
46. **Inefficiency** /ˌɪnɪˈfɪʃənsi/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Waste and poor performance
47. **Eat away at**
*Meaning*: Gradually destroy
48. **Potential gains**
*Meaning*: Possible benefits
49. **Like termites in wooden foundations**
*Meaning*: Slowly destroying from within
50. **Human capital development**
*Meaning*: Improving people's skills and knowledge
51. **Crucial piece of the puzzle**
*Meaning*: Very important part of the solution
52. **Invest heavily**
*Meaning*: Spend large amounts of money
53. **Take off**
*Meaning*: Begin to be successful
54. **Drive innovation**
*Meaning*: Cause new ideas to develop
55. **Productivity gains**
*Meaning*: Increases in efficiency
56. **Knowledge is power**
*Meaning*: Information gives advantages
57. **Information-driven economy**
*Meaning*: System based on data and knowledge
58. **Natural resources**
*Meaning*: Materials found in nature
59. **Outpaced** /ˌaʊtˈpeɪst/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Overtaken in progress
60. **Invested wisely**
*Meaning*: Spent money carefully for good results
61. **People's potential**
*Meaning*: What humans can achieve
62. **Catalyst** /ˈkætəlɪst/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Something that causes change
63. **Kickstarts** /ˈkɪkˌstɑrts/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Begins or starts something
64. **Transportation networks**
*Meaning*: Systems for moving people and goods
65. **Reliable** /rɪˈlaɪəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Dependable and consistent
66. **Energy systems**
*Meaning*: Power generation and distribution
67. **Cutting-edge** /ˈkʌtɪŋ edʒ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Most advanced
68. **Telecommunications** /ˌteləkəˌmjunəˈkeɪʃənz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Communication over distances
69. **Thrive** /θraɪv/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Grow successfully
70. **Scrimp on**
*Meaning*: Spend too little money on
71. **Stuck in a vicious cycle**
*Meaning*: Trapped in a repeating pattern of problems
72. **Connectivity** /ˌkɑnekˈtɪvəti/ (US), /ˌkɒnekˈtɪvəti/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Being connected or linked
73. **Hampers** /ˈhæmpərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Prevents or restricts
74. **International trade**
*Meaning*: Commerce between countries
75. **Cannot be overstated**
*Meaning*: Is extremely important
76. **Development equation**
*Meaning*: Formula for economic growth
77. **Integrate into**
*Meaning*: Become part of
78. **Global value chains**
*Meaning*: International production networks
79. **Rapid economic growth**
*Meaning*: Fast increase in economic activity
80. **Tap into larger markets**
*Meaning*: Access bigger customer bases
81. **Technology transfer**
*Meaning*: Sharing technical knowledge
82. **Comes with strings attached**
*Meaning*: Has conditions or requirements
83. **Domestic industries**
*Meaning*: Businesses within a country
84. **Get steamrolled**
*Meaning*: Be overwhelmed by superior force
85. **Efficient** /ɪˈfɪʃənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Working well without waste
86. **International competitors**
*Meaning*: Foreign businesses competing for the same market
87. **Financial sector**
*Meaning*: Banking and investment industry
88. **Pivotal role**
*Meaning*: Crucial function
89. **Channeling** /ˈtʃænəlɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Directing or guiding
90. **Productive investments**
*Meaning*: Spending that creates value
91. **Capital markets**
*Meaning*: Systems for trading financial securities
92. **Entrepreneurs** /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜrz/ (US), /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: People who start businesses
93. **Get their ventures off the ground**
*Meaning*: Start their business projects successfully
94. **Established businesses**
*Meaning*: Companies that have been operating for some time
95. **Expand operations**
*Meaning*: Grow business activities
96. **Underdeveloped** /ˌʌndərdɪˈveləpt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not fully developed
97. **Struggle to make headway**
*Meaning*: Have difficulty making progress
98. **Promising business ideas**
*Meaning*: Good potential business concepts
99. **See the light of day**
*Meaning*: Come into existence
100. **Foreign direct investment**
*Meaning*: Investment by foreign companies in domestic business
101. **Bridge the gap**
*Meaning*: Connect two different things
102. **Development aspirations**
*Meaning*: Goals for economic growth
103. **Domestic resource constraints**
*Meaning*: Limitations in local money and materials
104. **Multinational corporations**
*Meaning*: Companies operating in multiple countries
105. **Technical expertise**
*Meaning*: Specialized knowledge and skills
106. **Management know-how**
*Meaning*: Knowledge of how to run businesses
107. **Attracting quality investment**
*Meaning*: Getting good foreign money
108. **Rolling out the red carpet**
*Meaning*: Giving special treatment to welcome someone
109. **Political stability**
*Meaning*: Consistent and peaceful government
110. **Economic competitiveness**
*Meaning*: Ability to compete effectively in markets
111. **Property rights**
*Meaning*: Legal ownership protections
112. **Agricultural modernization**
*Meaning*: Making farming more advanced
113. **Developing nations**
*Meaning*: Countries working to improve their economies
114. **Large portions**
*Meaning*: Big parts
115. **Depend on farming**
*Meaning*: Rely on agriculture
116. **Livelihoods** /ˈlaɪvliˌhʊdz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Ways of earning money to live
117. **Irrigation** /ˌɪrəˈɡeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Artificial watering of crops
118. **Value-added processing**
*Meaning*: Manufacturing that increases product worth
119. **Subsistence agriculture**
*Meaning*: Farming just to survive
120. **Dynamic sector**
*Meaning*: Active and changing industry
121. **Urban populations**
*Meaning*: People living in cities
122. **Export revenues**
*Meaning*: Money earned from selling abroad
123. **Manufacturing sector**
*Meaning*: Industries that make products
124. **Engine of growth**
*Meaning*: Main driver of economic expansion
125. **Transitioning from agriculture**
*Meaning*: Moving away from farming
126. **Technical capabilities**
*Meaning*: Skills and abilities in technology
127. **Climbed the ladder**
*Meaning*: Made progress step by step
128. **Labor-intensive**
*Meaning*: Requiring many workers
129. **Value chain**
*Meaning*: Series of activities that create value
130. **Sophisticated** /səˈfɪstəˌkeɪtəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Advanced and complex
131. **Environmental sustainability**
*Meaning*: Protecting nature for the future
132. **Non-negotiable**
*Meaning*: Not open to discussion; required
133. **Grow first, clean up later**
*Meaning*: Prioritize economic growth over environmental protection
134. **Counterproductive** /ˌkaʊntərprəˈdʌktɪv/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Having the opposite of the desired effect
135. **Environmental degradation**
*Meaning*: Damage to the natural environment
136. **Long-term economic prospects**
*Meaning*: Future economic possibilities
137. **Green technologies**
*Meaning*: Environmentally friendly innovations
138. **Have their cake and eat it too**
*Meaning*: Get benefits without giving up anything
139. **Natural resources**
*Meaning*: Materials found in nature
140. **Service sector**
*Meaning*: Industries that provide services rather than products
141. **Advanced economies**
*Meaning*: Highly developed economic systems
142. **Educational systems**
*Meaning*: Networks of schools and learning institutions
143. **Middle-income trap**
*Meaning*: Situation where countries get stuck at medium wealth levels
144. **Price them out**
*Meaning*: Make something too expensive
145. **Low-cost manufacturing**
*Meaning*: Making products cheaply
146. **High-value services**
*Meaning*: Expensive professional services
147. **Innovation policies**
*Meaning*: Government plans to encourage new ideas
148. **Copying existing technologies**
*Meaning*: Imitating what others have already developed
149. **Gets them so far**
*Meaning*: Helps to a limited extent
150. **Research and development**
*Meaning*: Work to create new knowledge and products
151. **Crack this code**
*Meaning*: Solve this problem
152. **At the forefront**
*Meaning*: Leading position
153. **Emerging industries**
*Meaning*: New business sectors
154. **Regional integration**
*Meaning*: Countries working together in an area
155. **Economies of scale**
*Meaning*: Cost advantages from large production
156. **Trade agreements**
*Meaning*: Deals between countries about commerce
157. **Pool resources**
*Meaning*: Combine money and materials
158. **Coordinate policies**
*Meaning*: Work together on government plans
159. **Win-win scenarios**
*Meaning*: Situations where everyone benefits
160. **Purely national approaches**
*Meaning*: Strategies focusing only on one country
161. **Looking ahead**
*Meaning*: Thinking about the future
162. **Technological change**
*Meaning*: Development in technology
163. **Broadly shared**
*Meaning*: Distributed to many people
164. **Strike the right balance**
*Meaning*: Find the correct middle position
165. **Embracing innovation**
*Meaning*: Accepting new ideas
166. **Social cohesion**
*Meaning*: Unity and solidarity in society
167. **Lifts all boats**
*Meaning*: Benefits everyone
168. **Privileged few**
*Meaning*: Small group with special advantages
*Meaning*: Important or significant
2. **Navigate treacherous waters**
*Meaning*: Deal with dangerous or difficult situations
3. **Sustainable** /səˈsteɪnəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Able to continue without causing damage
4. **Prosperity** /prɑˈsperəti/ (US), /prɒˈsperəti/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Success and wealth
5. **Affluence** /ˈæfluəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Wealth and abundance
6. **Straightforward** /ˌstreɪtˈfɔrwərd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Simple and easy to understand
7. **Best-laid plans**
*Meaning*: Carefully made preparations
8. **Gone awry**
*Meaning*: Turned out badly or wrongly
9. **Throwing money at problems**
*Meaning*: Trying to solve issues just by spending money
10. **Delicate balancing act**
*Meaning*: Careful management of competing demands
11. **Weighs immediate needs**
*Meaning*: Considers urgent requirements
12. **Long-term objectives**
*Meaning*: Goals for the distant future
13. **Fostering** /ˈfɔstərɪŋ/ (US), /ˈfɒstərɪŋ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Encouraging development
14. **Entrepreneurship** /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜrʃɪp/ (US), /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːʃɪp/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Starting and running businesses
15. **Flourish** /ˈflɜrɪʃ/ (US), /ˈflʌrɪʃ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Grow successfully
16. **At its core**
*Meaning*: Fundamentally; essentially
17. **Transforming** /trænsˈfɔrmɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Changing completely
18. **Agrarian** /əˈɡreriən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Related to farming and agriculture
19. **Diversified** /daɪˈvɜrsəˌfaɪd/ (US), /daɪˈvɜːsɪfaɪd/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Having variety; not dependent on one thing
20. **Global stage**
*Meaning*: International level of competition
21. **Metamorphosis** /ˌmetəˈmɔrfəsəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Complete transformation
22. **Unfolds** /ʌnˈfoʊldz/ (US), /ʌnˈfəʊldz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Develops gradually
23. **Massive investments**
*Meaning*: Very large amounts of money spent
24. **Infrastructure** /ˈɪnfrəˌstrʌktʃər/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic facilities and systems
25. **Make this transition**
*Meaning*: Successfully change from one state to another
26. **Punching above their weight**
*Meaning*: Performing better than expected
27. **International markets**
*Meaning*: Global trading systems
28. **Fail to adapt**
*Meaning*: Unable to change with new conditions
29. **Being left behind**
*Meaning*: Not keeping up with progress
30. **Breakneck speed**
*Meaning*: Extremely fast pace
31. **Foundation** /faʊnˈdeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic supporting structure
32. **Development strategy**
*Meaning*: Plan for economic growth
33. **Building robust institutions**
*Meaning*: Creating strong organizations
34. **Withstand** /wɪðˈstænd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Resist or survive
35. **Political turbulence**
*Meaning*: Instability in government
36. **Economic shocks**
*Meaning*: Sudden negative changes in the economy
37. **Rule of law**
*Meaning*: System where laws apply to everyone equally
38. **Transparent** /trænsˈperənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Open and honest
39. **Governance** /ˈɡʌvərnəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: System of management and control
40. **Regulatory frameworks**
*Meaning*: Systems of rules and oversight
41. **Bedrock** /ˈbedˌrɑk/ (US), /ˈbedˌrɒk/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Fundamental foundation
42. **Firmly in place**
*Meaning*: Securely established
43. **Ambitious** /æmˈbɪʃəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Having big goals
44. **Fall flat**
*Meaning*: Fail completely
45. **Corruption** /kəˈrʌpʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Dishonest behavior by people in power
46. **Inefficiency** /ˌɪnɪˈfɪʃənsi/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Waste and poor performance
47. **Eat away at**
*Meaning*: Gradually destroy
48. **Potential gains**
*Meaning*: Possible benefits
49. **Like termites in wooden foundations**
*Meaning*: Slowly destroying from within
50. **Human capital development**
*Meaning*: Improving people's skills and knowledge
51. **Crucial piece of the puzzle**
*Meaning*: Very important part of the solution
52. **Invest heavily**
*Meaning*: Spend large amounts of money
53. **Take off**
*Meaning*: Begin to be successful
54. **Drive innovation**
*Meaning*: Cause new ideas to develop
55. **Productivity gains**
*Meaning*: Increases in efficiency
56. **Knowledge is power**
*Meaning*: Information gives advantages
57. **Information-driven economy**
*Meaning*: System based on data and knowledge
58. **Natural resources**
*Meaning*: Materials found in nature
59. **Outpaced** /ˌaʊtˈpeɪst/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Overtaken in progress
60. **Invested wisely**
*Meaning*: Spent money carefully for good results
61. **People's potential**
*Meaning*: What humans can achieve
62. **Catalyst** /ˈkætəlɪst/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Something that causes change
63. **Kickstarts** /ˈkɪkˌstɑrts/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Begins or starts something
64. **Transportation networks**
*Meaning*: Systems for moving people and goods
65. **Reliable** /rɪˈlaɪəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Dependable and consistent
66. **Energy systems**
*Meaning*: Power generation and distribution
67. **Cutting-edge** /ˈkʌtɪŋ edʒ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Most advanced
68. **Telecommunications** /ˌteləkəˌmjunəˈkeɪʃənz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Communication over distances
69. **Thrive** /θraɪv/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Grow successfully
70. **Scrimp on**
*Meaning*: Spend too little money on
71. **Stuck in a vicious cycle**
*Meaning*: Trapped in a repeating pattern of problems
72. **Connectivity** /ˌkɑnekˈtɪvəti/ (US), /ˌkɒnekˈtɪvəti/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Being connected or linked
73. **Hampers** /ˈhæmpərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Prevents or restricts
74. **International trade**
*Meaning*: Commerce between countries
75. **Cannot be overstated**
*Meaning*: Is extremely important
76. **Development equation**
*Meaning*: Formula for economic growth
77. **Integrate into**
*Meaning*: Become part of
78. **Global value chains**
*Meaning*: International production networks
79. **Rapid economic growth**
*Meaning*: Fast increase in economic activity
80. **Tap into larger markets**
*Meaning*: Access bigger customer bases
81. **Technology transfer**
*Meaning*: Sharing technical knowledge
82. **Comes with strings attached**
*Meaning*: Has conditions or requirements
83. **Domestic industries**
*Meaning*: Businesses within a country
84. **Get steamrolled**
*Meaning*: Be overwhelmed by superior force
85. **Efficient** /ɪˈfɪʃənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Working well without waste
86. **International competitors**
*Meaning*: Foreign businesses competing for the same market
87. **Financial sector**
*Meaning*: Banking and investment industry
88. **Pivotal role**
*Meaning*: Crucial function
89. **Channeling** /ˈtʃænəlɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Directing or guiding
90. **Productive investments**
*Meaning*: Spending that creates value
91. **Capital markets**
*Meaning*: Systems for trading financial securities
92. **Entrepreneurs** /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜrz/ (US), /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: People who start businesses
93. **Get their ventures off the ground**
*Meaning*: Start their business projects successfully
94. **Established businesses**
*Meaning*: Companies that have been operating for some time
95. **Expand operations**
*Meaning*: Grow business activities
96. **Underdeveloped** /ˌʌndərdɪˈveləpt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not fully developed
97. **Struggle to make headway**
*Meaning*: Have difficulty making progress
98. **Promising business ideas**
*Meaning*: Good potential business concepts
99. **See the light of day**
*Meaning*: Come into existence
100. **Foreign direct investment**
*Meaning*: Investment by foreign companies in domestic business
101. **Bridge the gap**
*Meaning*: Connect two different things
102. **Development aspirations**
*Meaning*: Goals for economic growth
103. **Domestic resource constraints**
*Meaning*: Limitations in local money and materials
104. **Multinational corporations**
*Meaning*: Companies operating in multiple countries
105. **Technical expertise**
*Meaning*: Specialized knowledge and skills
106. **Management know-how**
*Meaning*: Knowledge of how to run businesses
107. **Attracting quality investment**
*Meaning*: Getting good foreign money
108. **Rolling out the red carpet**
*Meaning*: Giving special treatment to welcome someone
109. **Political stability**
*Meaning*: Consistent and peaceful government
110. **Economic competitiveness**
*Meaning*: Ability to compete effectively in markets
111. **Property rights**
*Meaning*: Legal ownership protections
112. **Agricultural modernization**
*Meaning*: Making farming more advanced
113. **Developing nations**
*Meaning*: Countries working to improve their economies
114. **Large portions**
*Meaning*: Big parts
115. **Depend on farming**
*Meaning*: Rely on agriculture
116. **Livelihoods** /ˈlaɪvliˌhʊdz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Ways of earning money to live
117. **Irrigation** /ˌɪrəˈɡeɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Artificial watering of crops
118. **Value-added processing**
*Meaning*: Manufacturing that increases product worth
119. **Subsistence agriculture**
*Meaning*: Farming just to survive
120. **Dynamic sector**
*Meaning*: Active and changing industry
121. **Urban populations**
*Meaning*: People living in cities
122. **Export revenues**
*Meaning*: Money earned from selling abroad
123. **Manufacturing sector**
*Meaning*: Industries that make products
124. **Engine of growth**
*Meaning*: Main driver of economic expansion
125. **Transitioning from agriculture**
*Meaning*: Moving away from farming
126. **Technical capabilities**
*Meaning*: Skills and abilities in technology
127. **Climbed the ladder**
*Meaning*: Made progress step by step
128. **Labor-intensive**
*Meaning*: Requiring many workers
129. **Value chain**
*Meaning*: Series of activities that create value
130. **Sophisticated** /səˈfɪstəˌkeɪtəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Advanced and complex
131. **Environmental sustainability**
*Meaning*: Protecting nature for the future
132. **Non-negotiable**
*Meaning*: Not open to discussion; required
133. **Grow first, clean up later**
*Meaning*: Prioritize economic growth over environmental protection
134. **Counterproductive** /ˌkaʊntərprəˈdʌktɪv/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Having the opposite of the desired effect
135. **Environmental degradation**
*Meaning*: Damage to the natural environment
136. **Long-term economic prospects**
*Meaning*: Future economic possibilities
137. **Green technologies**
*Meaning*: Environmentally friendly innovations
138. **Have their cake and eat it too**
*Meaning*: Get benefits without giving up anything
139. **Natural resources**
*Meaning*: Materials found in nature
140. **Service sector**
*Meaning*: Industries that provide services rather than products
141. **Advanced economies**
*Meaning*: Highly developed economic systems
142. **Educational systems**
*Meaning*: Networks of schools and learning institutions
143. **Middle-income trap**
*Meaning*: Situation where countries get stuck at medium wealth levels
144. **Price them out**
*Meaning*: Make something too expensive
145. **Low-cost manufacturing**
*Meaning*: Making products cheaply
146. **High-value services**
*Meaning*: Expensive professional services
147. **Innovation policies**
*Meaning*: Government plans to encourage new ideas
148. **Copying existing technologies**
*Meaning*: Imitating what others have already developed
149. **Gets them so far**
*Meaning*: Helps to a limited extent
150. **Research and development**
*Meaning*: Work to create new knowledge and products
151. **Crack this code**
*Meaning*: Solve this problem
152. **At the forefront**
*Meaning*: Leading position
153. **Emerging industries**
*Meaning*: New business sectors
154. **Regional integration**
*Meaning*: Countries working together in an area
155. **Economies of scale**
*Meaning*: Cost advantages from large production
156. **Trade agreements**
*Meaning*: Deals between countries about commerce
157. **Pool resources**
*Meaning*: Combine money and materials
158. **Coordinate policies**
*Meaning*: Work together on government plans
159. **Win-win scenarios**
*Meaning*: Situations where everyone benefits
160. **Purely national approaches**
*Meaning*: Strategies focusing only on one country
161. **Looking ahead**
*Meaning*: Thinking about the future
162. **Technological change**
*Meaning*: Development in technology
163. **Broadly shared**
*Meaning*: Distributed to many people
164. **Strike the right balance**
*Meaning*: Find the correct middle position
165. **Embracing innovation**
*Meaning*: Accepting new ideas
166. **Social cohesion**
*Meaning*: Unity and solidarity in society
167. **Lifts all boats**
*Meaning*: Benefits everyone
168. **Privileged few**
*Meaning*: Small group with special advantages
Word stress
1. Compound Words
Rule: First part usually stressed
GREENhouse /ˈɡriːnhaʊs/ (building)
vs. green HOUSE /ɡriːn ˈhaʊs/ (house that is green)
BLACKboard vs. black BOARD
UPstairs vs. upSTAIRS
2. Prefixes and Stress
Most prefixes don't take stress:
UNhappy /ʌnˈhæpi/
REwrite /riˈraɪt/
PREview /ˈpriːvjuː/
Exception - Some prefixes are stressed:
OUTline /ˈaʊtlaɪn/
UNderstand /ˌʌndərˈstænd/
OVERtake /ˌoʊvərˈteɪk/
3. Suffixes and Stress Patterns
Stress-neutral suffixes (don't change stress):
-ing, -ed, -er, -est, -ly, -ness, -ment, -ful, -less
BEAUtiful /ˈbjuːtɪfəl/
CAREfulness /ˈkeərfəlnəs/
Stress-attracting suffixes (stress moves to syllable before suffix):
-ion, -sion, -tion:
eduCATE → eduCA**tion /ˌedʒuˈkeɪʃən/
deciSION /dɪˈsɪʒən/
-ity, -ety:
possiBIL**ity /ˌpɑsəˈbɪləti/
variETY /vəˈraɪəti/
-ic, -ical:
ecoNOM**ic /ˌiːkəˈnɑmɪk/
psychoLOGical /ˌsaɪkəˈlɑdʒɪkəl/
-ify, -ize:
classiFY /ˈklæsəˌfaɪ/
modernIZE /ˈmɑdərˌnaɪz/
4. Advanced Stress Patterns
Stress shifts in word families:
PRESent (noun/adjective) /ˈprezənt/
preSENT (verb) /prɪˈzent/
REcord (noun) /ˈrekərd/
reCORD (verb) /rɪˈkɔrd/
Three-syllable patterns:
First syllable stress: ˈ○○○
BEAUtiful, GENeral, POLitics
Second syllable stress: ○ˈ○○
reMEMber, toMORrow, imPORtant
Third syllable stress: ○○ˈ○
engiNEER, underSTAND, guaranTEE
5. Four+ Syllable Words
Primary and secondary stress:
ˌ○ˈ○○ eduCA**tion /ˌedʒuˈkeɪʃən/
ˌ○○ˈ○ internaTIONal /ˌɪntərˈnæʃənəl/
ˈ○ˌ○○ CAPitalism /ˈkæpɪtəˌlɪzəm/
6. Specialist Vocabulary Stress
Academic/Technical terms:
pheNOMenon /fɪˈnɑməˌnɑn/
characterIS**tic /ˌkærɪktəˈrɪstɪk/
bioTECHnology /ˌbaɪoʊtekˈnɑlədʒi/
Medical terms:
anaesTHEsia /ˌænəsˈθiːʒə/
cardiOLo**gy /ˌkɑrdiˈɑlədʒi/
Business terms:
entrepreNEUR /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜr/
accountaBILity /əˌkaʊntəˈbɪləti/
7. Problematic Stress Patterns for Advanced Learners
Words that often cause errors:
ANALyse /ˈænəˌlaɪz/ (NOT anaLYSE)
REsearch /ˈriːsɜrtʃ/ (noun) vs. reSEARCH /rɪˈsɜrtʃ/ (verb)
ADult /ˈædʌlt/ (US) vs. aDULT /əˈdʌlt/ (UK)
CONtroversy /ˈkɑntrəˌvɜrsi/ (US) vs. conTROVersy /kənˈtrɒvəsi/ (UK)
8. Stress in Phrases and Compounds
Phrasal stress patterns:
HIGH school /ˈhaɪ skuːl/ (compound)
high SCHOOL /haɪ ˈskuːl/ (adjective + noun)
NEW York /ˈnuː jɔrk/
PRIME minister /ˈpraɪm ˌmɪnɪstər/
9. Variable Stress
Words with alternative stress patterns:
ADvertisement /ˈædvərtɪzmənt/ (UK)
adVERtisement /ədˈvɜrtɪzmənt/ (US)
CONtroversy vs. conTROVersy
ADULT vs. aDULT
Rule: First part usually stressed
GREENhouse /ˈɡriːnhaʊs/ (building)
vs. green HOUSE /ɡriːn ˈhaʊs/ (house that is green)
BLACKboard vs. black BOARD
UPstairs vs. upSTAIRS
2. Prefixes and Stress
Most prefixes don't take stress:
UNhappy /ʌnˈhæpi/
REwrite /riˈraɪt/
PREview /ˈpriːvjuː/
Exception - Some prefixes are stressed:
OUTline /ˈaʊtlaɪn/
UNderstand /ˌʌndərˈstænd/
OVERtake /ˌoʊvərˈteɪk/
3. Suffixes and Stress Patterns
Stress-neutral suffixes (don't change stress):
-ing, -ed, -er, -est, -ly, -ness, -ment, -ful, -less
BEAUtiful /ˈbjuːtɪfəl/
CAREfulness /ˈkeərfəlnəs/
Stress-attracting suffixes (stress moves to syllable before suffix):
-ion, -sion, -tion:
eduCATE → eduCA**tion /ˌedʒuˈkeɪʃən/
deciSION /dɪˈsɪʒən/
-ity, -ety:
possiBIL**ity /ˌpɑsəˈbɪləti/
variETY /vəˈraɪəti/
-ic, -ical:
ecoNOM**ic /ˌiːkəˈnɑmɪk/
psychoLOGical /ˌsaɪkəˈlɑdʒɪkəl/
-ify, -ize:
classiFY /ˈklæsəˌfaɪ/
modernIZE /ˈmɑdərˌnaɪz/
4. Advanced Stress Patterns
Stress shifts in word families:
PRESent (noun/adjective) /ˈprezənt/
preSENT (verb) /prɪˈzent/
REcord (noun) /ˈrekərd/
reCORD (verb) /rɪˈkɔrd/
Three-syllable patterns:
First syllable stress: ˈ○○○
BEAUtiful, GENeral, POLitics
Second syllable stress: ○ˈ○○
reMEMber, toMORrow, imPORtant
Third syllable stress: ○○ˈ○
engiNEER, underSTAND, guaranTEE
5. Four+ Syllable Words
Primary and secondary stress:
ˌ○ˈ○○ eduCA**tion /ˌedʒuˈkeɪʃən/
ˌ○○ˈ○ internaTIONal /ˌɪntərˈnæʃənəl/
ˈ○ˌ○○ CAPitalism /ˈkæpɪtəˌlɪzəm/
6. Specialist Vocabulary Stress
Academic/Technical terms:
pheNOMenon /fɪˈnɑməˌnɑn/
characterIS**tic /ˌkærɪktəˈrɪstɪk/
bioTECHnology /ˌbaɪoʊtekˈnɑlədʒi/
Medical terms:
anaesTHEsia /ˌænəsˈθiːʒə/
cardiOLo**gy /ˌkɑrdiˈɑlədʒi/
Business terms:
entrepreNEUR /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜr/
accountaBILity /əˌkaʊntəˈbɪləti/
7. Problematic Stress Patterns for Advanced Learners
Words that often cause errors:
ANALyse /ˈænəˌlaɪz/ (NOT anaLYSE)
REsearch /ˈriːsɜrtʃ/ (noun) vs. reSEARCH /rɪˈsɜrtʃ/ (verb)
ADult /ˈædʌlt/ (US) vs. aDULT /əˈdʌlt/ (UK)
CONtroversy /ˈkɑntrəˌvɜrsi/ (US) vs. conTROVersy /kənˈtrɒvəsi/ (UK)
8. Stress in Phrases and Compounds
Phrasal stress patterns:
HIGH school /ˈhaɪ skuːl/ (compound)
high SCHOOL /haɪ ˈskuːl/ (adjective + noun)
NEW York /ˈnuː jɔrk/
PRIME minister /ˈpraɪm ˌmɪnɪstər/
9. Variable Stress
Words with alternative stress patterns:
ADvertisement /ˈædvərtɪzmənt/ (UK)
adVERtisement /ədˈvɜrtɪzmənt/ (US)
CONtroversy vs. conTROVersy
ADULT vs. aDULT