Intermediate150 min
How to … summarise
We summarise when we want to check we’ve understood what a speaker said or inferred, or when we just want to give the key points of something, e.g. a concept or what has been discussed previously. When we summarise, we paraphrase what has been said before.
So, what you mean is that you tried it
before and it worked to a degree. (check
understanding)
So what you’re saying is that you don’t think this idea will work. (check inference)
Basically, a petition involves getting people’s signatures. (summarise a concept)
In a nutshell, we’ve got two very different ideas to choose between. (summarise discussions)
So, what you mean is that you tried it
before and it worked to a degree. (check
understanding)
So what you’re saying is that you don’t think this idea will work. (check inference)
Basically, a petition involves getting people’s signatures. (summarise a concept)
In a nutshell, we’ve got two very different ideas to choose between. (summarise discussions)
Checking understanding of what a speaker said or inferred
So what you’re saying is (that) …
So what you mean is (that) …
To put it another way, …
In other words, …
So what you mean is (that) …
To put it another way, …
In other words, …
Summarising key points
In brief, …
In a nutshell, …
Basically, …
To recap, …
So to summarise, …
So what we’re saying is (that) …
In a nutshell, …
Basically, …
To recap, …
So to summarise, …
So what we’re saying is (that) …
Notice that to recap and to summarise are slightly more formal than the other phrases.
Notice that in spoken English, a speaker may begin with to put it another way, in other words, in a nutshell, basically, but they may also end with these words/phrases.
Basically, it’s something you use to filter unclean water.
It’s something you use to filter unclean water, basically.
To put it another way, it’s not something you want to use.
It’s not something you want to use, to put it another way.
Notice that in spoken English, a speaker may begin with to put it another way, in other words, in a nutshell, basically, but they may also end with these words/phrases.
Basically, it’s something you use to filter unclean water.
It’s something you use to filter unclean water, basically.
To put it another way, it’s not something you want to use.
It’s not something you want to use, to put it another way.
Quiz
Question 1 of 10
Choose the best phrase to start a summary: "______ , the main points of the report include..."
Firstly
To summarise
However
For example
Obstacles and Constraints on Economic Development: Breaking Down the Barriers to Progress
Economic development remains an uphill battle for many nations, as they find themselves caught between a rock and a hard place, struggling against formidable obstacles that seem to multiply like weeds in an untended garden. These barriers to progress don't exist in isolation – they form an intricate web of interconnected challenges that can trap entire societies in cycles of poverty and underdevelopment. Understanding these constraints is crucial for policymakers who are determined to break the chains that bind their nations to economic stagnation.
Corruption stands as perhaps the most insidious obstacle, eating away at the foundations of economic progress like acid on metal. When public officials line their own pockets instead of serving the public interest, development programs become little more than elaborate schemes for personal enrichment. This cancer spreads throughout institutions, creating a culture where honest business becomes nearly impossible and foreign investors think twice before putting their money on the line. Countries plagued by corruption often find themselves spinning their wheels, as resources that should fuel growth are instead siphoned off by those in positions of power.
Poor infrastructure represents another major stumbling block that can bring economic development to a grinding halt. Without reliable roads, ports, power grids, and telecommunications networks, businesses struggle to compete in global markets. It's like trying to run a marathon while wearing concrete boots – the effort may be there, but the results are predictably disappointing. Countries that scrimp on infrastructure investments often discover that penny-wise, pound-foolish policies leave them ill-equipped to attract the kind of industries that drive modern economic growth.
Educational deficiencies create a vicious cycle that perpetuates underdevelopment across generations. When large segments of the population lack basic literacy and numeracy skills, it becomes virtually impossible to build the human capital necessary for sustained economic progress. This brain drain doesn't just affect individual opportunities – it undermines entire economies' capacity to innovate and adapt to changing global conditions. Nations that fail to invest adequately in education often find themselves stuck in the slow lane while their better-educated competitors race ahead.
Political instability throws a monkey wrench into even the best-laid development plans. When governments change frequently or face constant threats from opposition groups, long-term economic planning becomes an exercise in futility. Investors hate uncertainty, and political turbulence sends them running for the hills faster than you can say "capital flight." Countries mired in political chaos often discover that their development efforts are built on shifting sand, with each new administration undoing the work of its predecessors.
Geographic disadvantages can prove to be virtually insurmountable barriers for some nations. Landlocked countries face higher transportation costs that put them at a competitive disadvantage in international trade. Those located in regions prone to natural disasters must constantly rebuild and repair, diverting precious resources away from development initiatives. Island nations may struggle with economies of scale, finding that their small domestic markets make it difficult to attract industries that require large consumer bases to remain viable.
Weak financial systems often keep promising economies from getting off the ground. When banks lack the capital or expertise to fund entrepreneurial ventures, good ideas never see the light of day. Small businesses find themselves caught in a catch-22 situation: they need credit to grow, but they can't get credit without proven track records. This financing gap strangles innovation in its infancy and prevents the kind of dynamic growth that characterizes successful developing economies.
International trade barriers can slam the door shut on export-led growth strategies. When developed nations impose tariffs or quotas on imports from developing countries, they effectively pull the rug out from under emerging economies trying to break into global markets. These protectionist policies force developing nations to fight with one hand tied behind their backs, making it nearly impossible to compete on a level playing field.
Resource curse phenomena present a particularly cruel irony, where countries blessed with abundant natural resources find themselves cursed with poor economic performance. Oil-rich nations often suffer from Dutch disease, where resource extraction crowds out other economic activities and leaves the economy vulnerable to commodity price fluctuations. This blessing in disguise becomes a burden when governments become complacent and fail to diversify their economic base.
Demographic challenges add another layer of complexity to development efforts. Countries with rapidly aging populations may find their social security systems stretched to the breaking point, while those with youth bulges struggle to create enough jobs for their expanding workforce. Both scenarios can drain government resources and create social tensions that impede economic progress.
Climate change has emerged as a twenty-first-century constraint that threatens to derail development efforts worldwide. Rising sea levels, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events can wipe out decades of progress in a matter of hours. Developing nations often lack the resources to adapt to these changes while simultaneously pursuing economic growth, creating an impossible balancing act.
Overcoming these obstacles requires more than wishful thinking – it demands comprehensive strategies that address multiple constraints simultaneously. Countries that have successfully broken through these barriers typically combine strong leadership, institutional reforms, strategic investments, and international cooperation. They understand that economic development is not a sprint but a marathon, requiring patience, persistence, and the wisdom to tackle root causes rather than merely treating symptoms. The nations that learn to turn these obstacles into stepping stones will find themselves on the path to sustainable prosperity.
Corruption stands as perhaps the most insidious obstacle, eating away at the foundations of economic progress like acid on metal. When public officials line their own pockets instead of serving the public interest, development programs become little more than elaborate schemes for personal enrichment. This cancer spreads throughout institutions, creating a culture where honest business becomes nearly impossible and foreign investors think twice before putting their money on the line. Countries plagued by corruption often find themselves spinning their wheels, as resources that should fuel growth are instead siphoned off by those in positions of power.
Poor infrastructure represents another major stumbling block that can bring economic development to a grinding halt. Without reliable roads, ports, power grids, and telecommunications networks, businesses struggle to compete in global markets. It's like trying to run a marathon while wearing concrete boots – the effort may be there, but the results are predictably disappointing. Countries that scrimp on infrastructure investments often discover that penny-wise, pound-foolish policies leave them ill-equipped to attract the kind of industries that drive modern economic growth.
Educational deficiencies create a vicious cycle that perpetuates underdevelopment across generations. When large segments of the population lack basic literacy and numeracy skills, it becomes virtually impossible to build the human capital necessary for sustained economic progress. This brain drain doesn't just affect individual opportunities – it undermines entire economies' capacity to innovate and adapt to changing global conditions. Nations that fail to invest adequately in education often find themselves stuck in the slow lane while their better-educated competitors race ahead.
Political instability throws a monkey wrench into even the best-laid development plans. When governments change frequently or face constant threats from opposition groups, long-term economic planning becomes an exercise in futility. Investors hate uncertainty, and political turbulence sends them running for the hills faster than you can say "capital flight." Countries mired in political chaos often discover that their development efforts are built on shifting sand, with each new administration undoing the work of its predecessors.
Geographic disadvantages can prove to be virtually insurmountable barriers for some nations. Landlocked countries face higher transportation costs that put them at a competitive disadvantage in international trade. Those located in regions prone to natural disasters must constantly rebuild and repair, diverting precious resources away from development initiatives. Island nations may struggle with economies of scale, finding that their small domestic markets make it difficult to attract industries that require large consumer bases to remain viable.
Weak financial systems often keep promising economies from getting off the ground. When banks lack the capital or expertise to fund entrepreneurial ventures, good ideas never see the light of day. Small businesses find themselves caught in a catch-22 situation: they need credit to grow, but they can't get credit without proven track records. This financing gap strangles innovation in its infancy and prevents the kind of dynamic growth that characterizes successful developing economies.
International trade barriers can slam the door shut on export-led growth strategies. When developed nations impose tariffs or quotas on imports from developing countries, they effectively pull the rug out from under emerging economies trying to break into global markets. These protectionist policies force developing nations to fight with one hand tied behind their backs, making it nearly impossible to compete on a level playing field.
Resource curse phenomena present a particularly cruel irony, where countries blessed with abundant natural resources find themselves cursed with poor economic performance. Oil-rich nations often suffer from Dutch disease, where resource extraction crowds out other economic activities and leaves the economy vulnerable to commodity price fluctuations. This blessing in disguise becomes a burden when governments become complacent and fail to diversify their economic base.
Demographic challenges add another layer of complexity to development efforts. Countries with rapidly aging populations may find their social security systems stretched to the breaking point, while those with youth bulges struggle to create enough jobs for their expanding workforce. Both scenarios can drain government resources and create social tensions that impede economic progress.
Climate change has emerged as a twenty-first-century constraint that threatens to derail development efforts worldwide. Rising sea levels, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events can wipe out decades of progress in a matter of hours. Developing nations often lack the resources to adapt to these changes while simultaneously pursuing economic growth, creating an impossible balancing act.
Overcoming these obstacles requires more than wishful thinking – it demands comprehensive strategies that address multiple constraints simultaneously. Countries that have successfully broken through these barriers typically combine strong leadership, institutional reforms, strategic investments, and international cooperation. They understand that economic development is not a sprint but a marathon, requiring patience, persistence, and the wisdom to tackle root causes rather than merely treating symptoms. The nations that learn to turn these obstacles into stepping stones will find themselves on the path to sustainable prosperity.
1. **Uphill battle**
*Meaning*: A difficult struggle
2. **Caught between a rock and a hard place**
*Meaning*: Faced with two equally difficult choices
3. **Formidable** /ˈfɔrmədəbəl/ (US), /ˈfɔːmɪdəbəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Inspiring fear or respect through being difficult
4. **Multiply like weeds**
*Meaning*: Increase rapidly and uncontrollably
5. **Untended** /ʌnˈtendəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not looked after or cared for
6. **In isolation**
*Meaning*: Separately; without connection to other things
7. **Intricate** /ˈɪntrəkət/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Very complicated
8. **Interconnected** /ˌɪntərkəˈnektəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Connected with each other
9. **Trap entire societies**
*Meaning*: Prevent whole communities from escaping
10. **Cycles of poverty**
*Meaning*: Repeating patterns of being poor
11. **Underdevelopment** /ˌʌndərdɪˈveləpmənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Lack of economic progress
12. **Constraints** /kənˈstreɪnts/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Limitations or restrictions
13. **Policymakers** /ˈpɑləsiˌmeɪkərz/ (US), /ˈpɒləsiˌmeɪkəz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: People who create government policies
14. **Break the chains**
*Meaning*: Free oneself from restrictions
15. **Bind their nations**
*Meaning*: Tie their countries to something
16. **Economic stagnation**
*Meaning*: Period of no economic growth
17. **Insidious** /ɪnˈsɪdiəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Proceeding in a harmful way
18. **Eating away at**
*Meaning*: Gradually destroying
19. **Foundations** /faʊnˈdeɪʃənz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic supporting structures
20. **Like acid on metal**
*Meaning*: Gradually corroding and destroying
21. **Line their own pockets**
*Meaning*: Make money dishonestly
22. **Public interest**
*Meaning*: What benefits society as a whole
23. **Elaborate schemes**
*Meaning*: Complex plans
24. **Personal enrichment**
*Meaning*: Making oneself wealthy
25. **Cancer spreads**
*Meaning*: Harmful influence grows
26. **Think twice**
*Meaning*: Consider carefully before acting
27. **Putting their money on the line**
*Meaning*: Risking their investment
28. **Plagued by**
*Meaning*: Constantly troubled by
29. **Spinning their wheels**
*Meaning*: Working hard but making no progress
30. **Siphoned off**
*Meaning*: Secretly taken away
31. **Positions of power**
*Meaning*: Important roles with authority
32. **Stumbling block**
*Meaning*: An obstacle
33. **Grinding halt**
*Meaning*: Complete stop
34. **Reliable** /rɪˈlaɪəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Dependable
35. **Power grids**
*Meaning*: Electricity distribution networks
36. **Telecommunications** /ˌteləkəˌmjunəˈkeɪʃənz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Communication systems
37. **Global markets**
*Meaning*: Worldwide trading systems
38. **Concrete boots**
*Meaning*: Heavy restrictions that slow progress
39. **Predictably** /prɪˈdɪktəbli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: As expected
40. **Disappointing** /ˌdɪsəˈpɔɪntɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not as good as hoped
41. **Scrimp on**
*Meaning*: Spend too little money on
42. **Penny-wise, pound-foolish**
*Meaning*: Saving small amounts but losing larger ones
43. **Ill-equipped**
*Meaning*: Not properly prepared
44. **Educational deficiencies**
*Meaning*: Lack of proper education
45. **Vicious cycle**
*Meaning*: Repeating pattern of problems
46. **Perpetuates** /pərˈpetʃuˌeɪts/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Causes to continue
47. **Across generations**
*Meaning*: From parents to children over time
48. **Large segments**
*Meaning*: Big parts
49. **Basic literacy**
*Meaning*: Ability to read and write simple things
50. **Numeracy** /ˈnumərisɪ/ (US), /ˈnjuːmərisɪ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Ability to understand numbers
51. **Virtually impossible**
*Meaning*: Almost impossible
52. **Human capital**
*Meaning*: Skills and knowledge of workers
53. **Sustained** /səˈsteɪnd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Continuing over time
54. **Brain drain**
*Meaning*: Loss of educated people to other countries
55. **Undermines** /ˌʌndərˈmaɪnz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Weakens gradually
56. **Capacity** /kəˈpæsəti/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Ability to do something
57. **Innovate** /ˈɪnəˌveɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Create new ideas
58. **Adequately** /ˈædəkwətli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Sufficiently
59. **Stuck in the slow lane**
*Meaning*: Making slower progress than others
60. **Race ahead**
*Meaning*: Move forward very quickly
61. **Political instability**
*Meaning*: Frequent changes in government
62. **Throws a monkey wrench**
*Meaning*: Disrupts or interferes with plans
63. **Best-laid plans**
*Meaning*: Carefully prepared strategies
64. **Exercise in futility**
*Meaning*: Pointless activity
65. **Hate uncertainty**
*Meaning*: Dislike not knowing what will happen
66. **Political turbulence**
*Meaning*: Unstable political conditions
67. **Running for the hills**
*Meaning*: Leaving quickly to avoid problems
68. **Capital flight**
*Meaning*: Money leaving a country quickly
69. **Mired in**
*Meaning*: Stuck in
70. **Political chaos**
*Meaning*: Complete disorder in government
71. **Built on shifting sand**
*Meaning*: Based on unstable foundations
72. **Predecessors** /ˈpredəˌsesərz/ (US), /ˈpriːdəˌsesəz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: People who held positions before others
73. **Geographic** /ˌdʒiəˈɡræfɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Related to location and physical features
74. **Disadvantages** /ˌdɪsədˈvæntɪdʒəz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Unfavorable circumstances
75. **Virtually insurmountable**
*Meaning*: Almost impossible to overcome
76. **Landlocked** /ˈlændˌlɑkt/ (US), /ˈlændˌlɒkt/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Surrounded by land with no sea access
77. **Transportation costs**
*Meaning*: Expenses for moving goods
78. **Competitive disadvantage**
*Meaning*: Being at a disadvantage compared to competitors
79. **International trade**
*Meaning*: Commerce between countries
80. **Prone to**
*Meaning*: Likely to experience
81. **Natural disasters**
*Meaning*: Catastrophic events caused by nature
82. **Diverting** /daɪˈvɜrtɪŋ/ (US), /daɪˈvɜːtɪŋ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Redirecting
83. **Precious resources**
*Meaning*: Valuable materials or money
84. **Development initiatives**
*Meaning*: Programs to promote growth
85. **Economies of scale**
*Meaning*: Cost advantages from large production
86. **Domestic markets**
*Meaning*: Local consumer base
87. **Consumer bases**
*Meaning*: Groups of customers
88. **Remain viable**
*Meaning*: Continue to be successful
89. **Financial systems**
*Meaning*: Banking and investment networks
90. **Getting off the ground**
*Meaning*: Starting successfully
91. **Entrepreneurial** /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜriəl/ (US), /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːriəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Related to starting businesses
92. **Ventures** /ˈventʃərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Business projects
93. **See the light of day**
*Meaning*: Come into existence
94. **Caught in a catch-22**
*Meaning*: Trapped in a paradoxical situation
95. **Proven track records**
*Meaning*: Demonstrated history of success
96. **Financing gap**
*Meaning*: Lack of available money
97. **Strangles innovation**
*Meaning*: Prevents new ideas from developing
98. **In its infancy**
*Meaning*: At its very beginning
99. **Dynamic growth**
*Meaning*: Energetic and changing expansion
100. **Characterizes** /ˈkærəktəˌraɪzəz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Is typical of
101. **Trade barriers**
*Meaning*: Restrictions on international commerce
102. **Slam the door shut**
*Meaning*: Completely prevent access
103. **Export-led growth**
*Meaning*: Economic expansion based on selling abroad
104. **Impose tariffs**
*Meaning*: Add taxes on imports
105. **Quotas** /ˈkwoʊtəz/ (US), /ˈkwəʊtəz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Limits on quantities
106. **Pull the rug out**
*Meaning*: Suddenly remove support
107. **Emerging economies**
*Meaning*: Developing economic systems
108. **Breaking into**
*Meaning*: Successfully entering
109. **Protectionist** /prəˈtekʃənəst/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Supporting trade restrictions
110. **Fight with one hand tied**
*Meaning*: Compete under unfair conditions
111. **Level playing field**
*Meaning*: Fair and equal conditions
112. **Resource curse**
*Meaning*: Paradox where natural wealth harms economy
113. **Cruel irony**
*Meaning*: Harsh contradiction
114. **Blessed with**
*Meaning*: Having the good fortune of
115. **Abundant** /əˈbʌndənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Existing in large quantities
116. **Cursed with**
*Meaning*: Unfortunate to have
117. **Dutch disease**
*Meaning*: Economic problem caused by resource wealth
118. **Crowds out**
*Meaning*: Replaces other activities
119. **Economic activities**
*Meaning*: Business and commercial actions
120. **Vulnerable** /ˈvʌlnərəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Exposed to danger
121. **Commodity** /kəˈmɑdəti/ (US), /kəˈmɒdəti/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Raw material or agricultural product
122. **Price fluctuations**
*Meaning*: Changes in costs
123. **Blessing in disguise**
*Meaning*: Something that seems bad but is actually good
124. **Complacent** /kəmˈpleɪsənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Self-satisfied and unwilling to change
125. **Diversify** /daɪˈvɜrsəˌfaɪ/ (US), /daɪˈvɜːsɪfaɪ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Make more varied
126. **Economic base**
*Meaning*: Foundation of economic activity
127. **Demographic** /ˌdeməˈɡræfɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Related to population characteristics
128. **Aging populations**
*Meaning*: Societies with many old people
129. **Social security systems**
*Meaning*: Government programs for elderly support
130. **Stretched to the breaking point**
*Meaning*: Under extreme pressure
131. **Youth bulges**
*Meaning*: Large numbers of young people
132. **Expanding workforce**
*Meaning*: Growing number of workers
133. **Drain government resources**
*Meaning*: Use up official money
134. **Social tensions**
*Meaning*: Conflicts between groups in society
135. **Impede** /ɪmˈpid/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Hinder or obstruct
136. **Climate change**
*Meaning*: Long-term changes in weather patterns
137. **Twenty-first-century**
*Meaning*: Modern; current era
138. **Constraint** /kənˈstreɪnt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Limitation
139. **Derail** /dɪˈreɪl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Cause to fail
140. **Sea levels**
*Meaning*: Height of ocean surface
141. **Precipitation** /prɪˌsɪpəˈteɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Rain, snow, etc.
142. **Extreme weather events**
*Meaning*: Severe storms, floods, droughts
143. **Wipe out**
*Meaning*: Completely destroy
144. **Decades of progress**
*Meaning*: Many years of improvement
145. **In a matter of hours**
*Meaning*: Very quickly
146. **Adapt to**
*Meaning*: Adjust to new conditions
147. **Simultaneously** /ˌsaɪməlˈteɪniəsli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: At the same time
148. **Pursuing** /pərˈsuɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Following or seeking
149. **Impossible balancing act**
*Meaning*: Very difficult task requiring careful management
150. **Wishful thinking**
*Meaning*: Hoping for something unlikely
151. **Comprehensive** /ˌkɑmprɪˈhensɪv/ (US), /ˌkɒmprɪˈhensɪv/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Complete and thorough
152. **Multiple constraints**
*Meaning*: Many different limitations
153. **Simultaneously** /ˌsaɪməlˈteɪniəsli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: At the same time
154. **Broken through**
*Meaning*: Successfully overcome
155. **Strong leadership**
*Meaning*: Effective guidance
156. **Institutional reforms**
*Meaning*: Changes to organizational systems
157. **Strategic investments**
*Meaning*: Carefully planned spending
158. **International cooperation**
*Meaning*: Working together across countries
159. **Not a sprint but a marathon**
*Meaning*: Requires long-term effort, not quick action
160. **Persistence** /pərˈsɪstəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Continuing despite difficulties
161. **Root causes**
*Meaning*: Fundamental reasons for problems
162. **Treating symptoms**
*Meaning*: Dealing with effects rather than causes
163. **Turn obstacles into stepping stones**
*Meaning*: Use problems as opportunities for progress
164. **Sustainable prosperity**
*Meaning*: Long-lasting wealth and success
*Meaning*: A difficult struggle
2. **Caught between a rock and a hard place**
*Meaning*: Faced with two equally difficult choices
3. **Formidable** /ˈfɔrmədəbəl/ (US), /ˈfɔːmɪdəbəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Inspiring fear or respect through being difficult
4. **Multiply like weeds**
*Meaning*: Increase rapidly and uncontrollably
5. **Untended** /ʌnˈtendəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not looked after or cared for
6. **In isolation**
*Meaning*: Separately; without connection to other things
7. **Intricate** /ˈɪntrəkət/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Very complicated
8. **Interconnected** /ˌɪntərkəˈnektəd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Connected with each other
9. **Trap entire societies**
*Meaning*: Prevent whole communities from escaping
10. **Cycles of poverty**
*Meaning*: Repeating patterns of being poor
11. **Underdevelopment** /ˌʌndərdɪˈveləpmənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Lack of economic progress
12. **Constraints** /kənˈstreɪnts/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Limitations or restrictions
13. **Policymakers** /ˈpɑləsiˌmeɪkərz/ (US), /ˈpɒləsiˌmeɪkəz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: People who create government policies
14. **Break the chains**
*Meaning*: Free oneself from restrictions
15. **Bind their nations**
*Meaning*: Tie their countries to something
16. **Economic stagnation**
*Meaning*: Period of no economic growth
17. **Insidious** /ɪnˈsɪdiəs/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Proceeding in a harmful way
18. **Eating away at**
*Meaning*: Gradually destroying
19. **Foundations** /faʊnˈdeɪʃənz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Basic supporting structures
20. **Like acid on metal**
*Meaning*: Gradually corroding and destroying
21. **Line their own pockets**
*Meaning*: Make money dishonestly
22. **Public interest**
*Meaning*: What benefits society as a whole
23. **Elaborate schemes**
*Meaning*: Complex plans
24. **Personal enrichment**
*Meaning*: Making oneself wealthy
25. **Cancer spreads**
*Meaning*: Harmful influence grows
26. **Think twice**
*Meaning*: Consider carefully before acting
27. **Putting their money on the line**
*Meaning*: Risking their investment
28. **Plagued by**
*Meaning*: Constantly troubled by
29. **Spinning their wheels**
*Meaning*: Working hard but making no progress
30. **Siphoned off**
*Meaning*: Secretly taken away
31. **Positions of power**
*Meaning*: Important roles with authority
32. **Stumbling block**
*Meaning*: An obstacle
33. **Grinding halt**
*Meaning*: Complete stop
34. **Reliable** /rɪˈlaɪəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Dependable
35. **Power grids**
*Meaning*: Electricity distribution networks
36. **Telecommunications** /ˌteləkəˌmjunəˈkeɪʃənz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Communication systems
37. **Global markets**
*Meaning*: Worldwide trading systems
38. **Concrete boots**
*Meaning*: Heavy restrictions that slow progress
39. **Predictably** /prɪˈdɪktəbli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: As expected
40. **Disappointing** /ˌdɪsəˈpɔɪntɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Not as good as hoped
41. **Scrimp on**
*Meaning*: Spend too little money on
42. **Penny-wise, pound-foolish**
*Meaning*: Saving small amounts but losing larger ones
43. **Ill-equipped**
*Meaning*: Not properly prepared
44. **Educational deficiencies**
*Meaning*: Lack of proper education
45. **Vicious cycle**
*Meaning*: Repeating pattern of problems
46. **Perpetuates** /pərˈpetʃuˌeɪts/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Causes to continue
47. **Across generations**
*Meaning*: From parents to children over time
48. **Large segments**
*Meaning*: Big parts
49. **Basic literacy**
*Meaning*: Ability to read and write simple things
50. **Numeracy** /ˈnumərisɪ/ (US), /ˈnjuːmərisɪ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Ability to understand numbers
51. **Virtually impossible**
*Meaning*: Almost impossible
52. **Human capital**
*Meaning*: Skills and knowledge of workers
53. **Sustained** /səˈsteɪnd/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Continuing over time
54. **Brain drain**
*Meaning*: Loss of educated people to other countries
55. **Undermines** /ˌʌndərˈmaɪnz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Weakens gradually
56. **Capacity** /kəˈpæsəti/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Ability to do something
57. **Innovate** /ˈɪnəˌveɪt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Create new ideas
58. **Adequately** /ˈædəkwətli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Sufficiently
59. **Stuck in the slow lane**
*Meaning*: Making slower progress than others
60. **Race ahead**
*Meaning*: Move forward very quickly
61. **Political instability**
*Meaning*: Frequent changes in government
62. **Throws a monkey wrench**
*Meaning*: Disrupts or interferes with plans
63. **Best-laid plans**
*Meaning*: Carefully prepared strategies
64. **Exercise in futility**
*Meaning*: Pointless activity
65. **Hate uncertainty**
*Meaning*: Dislike not knowing what will happen
66. **Political turbulence**
*Meaning*: Unstable political conditions
67. **Running for the hills**
*Meaning*: Leaving quickly to avoid problems
68. **Capital flight**
*Meaning*: Money leaving a country quickly
69. **Mired in**
*Meaning*: Stuck in
70. **Political chaos**
*Meaning*: Complete disorder in government
71. **Built on shifting sand**
*Meaning*: Based on unstable foundations
72. **Predecessors** /ˈpredəˌsesərz/ (US), /ˈpriːdəˌsesəz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: People who held positions before others
73. **Geographic** /ˌdʒiəˈɡræfɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Related to location and physical features
74. **Disadvantages** /ˌdɪsədˈvæntɪdʒəz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Unfavorable circumstances
75. **Virtually insurmountable**
*Meaning*: Almost impossible to overcome
76. **Landlocked** /ˈlændˌlɑkt/ (US), /ˈlændˌlɒkt/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Surrounded by land with no sea access
77. **Transportation costs**
*Meaning*: Expenses for moving goods
78. **Competitive disadvantage**
*Meaning*: Being at a disadvantage compared to competitors
79. **International trade**
*Meaning*: Commerce between countries
80. **Prone to**
*Meaning*: Likely to experience
81. **Natural disasters**
*Meaning*: Catastrophic events caused by nature
82. **Diverting** /daɪˈvɜrtɪŋ/ (US), /daɪˈvɜːtɪŋ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Redirecting
83. **Precious resources**
*Meaning*: Valuable materials or money
84. **Development initiatives**
*Meaning*: Programs to promote growth
85. **Economies of scale**
*Meaning*: Cost advantages from large production
86. **Domestic markets**
*Meaning*: Local consumer base
87. **Consumer bases**
*Meaning*: Groups of customers
88. **Remain viable**
*Meaning*: Continue to be successful
89. **Financial systems**
*Meaning*: Banking and investment networks
90. **Getting off the ground**
*Meaning*: Starting successfully
91. **Entrepreneurial** /ˌɑntrəprəˈnɜriəl/ (US), /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːriəl/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Related to starting businesses
92. **Ventures** /ˈventʃərz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Business projects
93. **See the light of day**
*Meaning*: Come into existence
94. **Caught in a catch-22**
*Meaning*: Trapped in a paradoxical situation
95. **Proven track records**
*Meaning*: Demonstrated history of success
96. **Financing gap**
*Meaning*: Lack of available money
97. **Strangles innovation**
*Meaning*: Prevents new ideas from developing
98. **In its infancy**
*Meaning*: At its very beginning
99. **Dynamic growth**
*Meaning*: Energetic and changing expansion
100. **Characterizes** /ˈkærəktəˌraɪzəz/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Is typical of
101. **Trade barriers**
*Meaning*: Restrictions on international commerce
102. **Slam the door shut**
*Meaning*: Completely prevent access
103. **Export-led growth**
*Meaning*: Economic expansion based on selling abroad
104. **Impose tariffs**
*Meaning*: Add taxes on imports
105. **Quotas** /ˈkwoʊtəz/ (US), /ˈkwəʊtəz/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Limits on quantities
106. **Pull the rug out**
*Meaning*: Suddenly remove support
107. **Emerging economies**
*Meaning*: Developing economic systems
108. **Breaking into**
*Meaning*: Successfully entering
109. **Protectionist** /prəˈtekʃənəst/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Supporting trade restrictions
110. **Fight with one hand tied**
*Meaning*: Compete under unfair conditions
111. **Level playing field**
*Meaning*: Fair and equal conditions
112. **Resource curse**
*Meaning*: Paradox where natural wealth harms economy
113. **Cruel irony**
*Meaning*: Harsh contradiction
114. **Blessed with**
*Meaning*: Having the good fortune of
115. **Abundant** /əˈbʌndənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Existing in large quantities
116. **Cursed with**
*Meaning*: Unfortunate to have
117. **Dutch disease**
*Meaning*: Economic problem caused by resource wealth
118. **Crowds out**
*Meaning*: Replaces other activities
119. **Economic activities**
*Meaning*: Business and commercial actions
120. **Vulnerable** /ˈvʌlnərəbəl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Exposed to danger
121. **Commodity** /kəˈmɑdəti/ (US), /kəˈmɒdəti/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Raw material or agricultural product
122. **Price fluctuations**
*Meaning*: Changes in costs
123. **Blessing in disguise**
*Meaning*: Something that seems bad but is actually good
124. **Complacent** /kəmˈpleɪsənt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Self-satisfied and unwilling to change
125. **Diversify** /daɪˈvɜrsəˌfaɪ/ (US), /daɪˈvɜːsɪfaɪ/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Make more varied
126. **Economic base**
*Meaning*: Foundation of economic activity
127. **Demographic** /ˌdeməˈɡræfɪk/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Related to population characteristics
128. **Aging populations**
*Meaning*: Societies with many old people
129. **Social security systems**
*Meaning*: Government programs for elderly support
130. **Stretched to the breaking point**
*Meaning*: Under extreme pressure
131. **Youth bulges**
*Meaning*: Large numbers of young people
132. **Expanding workforce**
*Meaning*: Growing number of workers
133. **Drain government resources**
*Meaning*: Use up official money
134. **Social tensions**
*Meaning*: Conflicts between groups in society
135. **Impede** /ɪmˈpid/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Hinder or obstruct
136. **Climate change**
*Meaning*: Long-term changes in weather patterns
137. **Twenty-first-century**
*Meaning*: Modern; current era
138. **Constraint** /kənˈstreɪnt/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Limitation
139. **Derail** /dɪˈreɪl/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Cause to fail
140. **Sea levels**
*Meaning*: Height of ocean surface
141. **Precipitation** /prɪˌsɪpəˈteɪʃən/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Rain, snow, etc.
142. **Extreme weather events**
*Meaning*: Severe storms, floods, droughts
143. **Wipe out**
*Meaning*: Completely destroy
144. **Decades of progress**
*Meaning*: Many years of improvement
145. **In a matter of hours**
*Meaning*: Very quickly
146. **Adapt to**
*Meaning*: Adjust to new conditions
147. **Simultaneously** /ˌsaɪməlˈteɪniəsli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: At the same time
148. **Pursuing** /pərˈsuɪŋ/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Following or seeking
149. **Impossible balancing act**
*Meaning*: Very difficult task requiring careful management
150. **Wishful thinking**
*Meaning*: Hoping for something unlikely
151. **Comprehensive** /ˌkɑmprɪˈhensɪv/ (US), /ˌkɒmprɪˈhensɪv/ (UK)
*Meaning*: Complete and thorough
152. **Multiple constraints**
*Meaning*: Many different limitations
153. **Simultaneously** /ˌsaɪməlˈteɪniəsli/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: At the same time
154. **Broken through**
*Meaning*: Successfully overcome
155. **Strong leadership**
*Meaning*: Effective guidance
156. **Institutional reforms**
*Meaning*: Changes to organizational systems
157. **Strategic investments**
*Meaning*: Carefully planned spending
158. **International cooperation**
*Meaning*: Working together across countries
159. **Not a sprint but a marathon**
*Meaning*: Requires long-term effort, not quick action
160. **Persistence** /pərˈsɪstəns/ (US & UK)
*Meaning*: Continuing despite difficulties
161. **Root causes**
*Meaning*: Fundamental reasons for problems
162. **Treating symptoms**
*Meaning*: Dealing with effects rather than causes
163. **Turn obstacles into stepping stones**
*Meaning*: Use problems as opportunities for progress
164. **Sustainable prosperity**
*Meaning*: Long-lasting wealth and success
Intonation when summarising
When summarising spoken content — whether to check understanding, to infer meaning, or to highlight key points — the way your voice rises and falls helps convey your attitude, confidence, and engagement with the subject.
1. Rising Intonation for Checking Understanding and Inference:
When summarising to check understanding or inference, a slight rising intonation at the end of the phrase can indicate a question or invite confirmation. For example, in sentences like "So what you’re saying is..." or "So what you mean is...", the rising tone prompts the listener to agree or clarify.
2. Falling Intonation for Summarising Key Points:
Falling intonation is typically used when summarising key points or recapping information. It signals completion and confidence in the statement. For example, phrases like "In brief," "In a nutshell," and "Basically," are usually followed by a pause with a falling pitch, signaling that the speaker is concluding a thought or summarising.
3. Intonation Placement in Phrases:
Notice that summarising phrases can appear at the beginning or end of a sentence. Intonation contours may vary accordingly. When these phrases start a sentence, the speaker usually uses a steady or falling tone on the phrase, with a slight pause before continuing the summary.
"Basically, it's a method to improve efficiency."
When summarising phrases appear at the end, the intonation can create a softer or more informal feeling, often with a falling tone that closes the idea.
"It's a method to improve efficiency, basically."
4. Expressing Nuance and Formality:
Advanced speakers use intonation to express subtle nuances such as certainty, politeness, or emphasis. Using a firm falling intonation with "To recap," or "So to summarise," can convey professionalism and authority. Conversely, a lighter tone with "Basically," can make the summary feel more casual and conversational.
1. Rising Intonation for Checking Understanding and Inference:
When summarising to check understanding or inference, a slight rising intonation at the end of the phrase can indicate a question or invite confirmation. For example, in sentences like "So what you’re saying is..." or "So what you mean is...", the rising tone prompts the listener to agree or clarify.
2. Falling Intonation for Summarising Key Points:
Falling intonation is typically used when summarising key points or recapping information. It signals completion and confidence in the statement. For example, phrases like "In brief," "In a nutshell," and "Basically," are usually followed by a pause with a falling pitch, signaling that the speaker is concluding a thought or summarising.
3. Intonation Placement in Phrases:
Notice that summarising phrases can appear at the beginning or end of a sentence. Intonation contours may vary accordingly. When these phrases start a sentence, the speaker usually uses a steady or falling tone on the phrase, with a slight pause before continuing the summary.
"Basically, it's a method to improve efficiency."
When summarising phrases appear at the end, the intonation can create a softer or more informal feeling, often with a falling tone that closes the idea.
"It's a method to improve efficiency, basically."
4. Expressing Nuance and Formality:
Advanced speakers use intonation to express subtle nuances such as certainty, politeness, or emphasis. Using a firm falling intonation with "To recap," or "So to summarise," can convey professionalism and authority. Conversely, a lighter tone with "Basically," can make the summary feel more casual and conversational.