Intermediate200 min
Adverbials
Adverbials add extra information to a sentence about time, frequency, manner, etc. They can be a single word or a phrase.
Adverbials of manner
These describe how something happens. They usually come after the verb and object, but they can also come before the verb or at the beginning of a sentence, for emphasis. When they are used at the
beginning of a sentence, they are followed by a comma.
Words can fall out of fashion quickly.
She usually drives carefully.
It’s important to spend your money in a sensible way.
She quietly closed the door.
Carefully, she put the lid back on the box.
Time adverbials
These describe when something happens, or how long it happened for. They usually come after the verb and object, but can come at the beginning of a sentence, for emphasis. When they are used at the
beginning of a sentence, they are followed by a comma.
I saw Sam last week.
We moved to London in 2025.
We sat outside in the garden for a while.
Two weeks ago, I saw him in the city centre.
Frequency adverbials
These describe how oft en something happens. Frequency adverbs usually come before the main verb, but aft er the verb be. Adverbial phrases of frequency usually come after the verb and object, but can come at the beginning of a sentence, for emphasis. When they are used at the beginning of a sentence, they are followed by a comma.
I often go shopping there.
She’s usually at the gym in the morning.
I walk that way to work pretty much every day.
From time to time, I wonder how much I really enjoy my job.
Intensifying adverbs
These modify an adjective and make the meaning of the adjective stronger or weaker. They come before the adjective.
She looked extremely happy.
It was quite warm outside.
He was incredibly angry.
Sentence adverbials
These show the speaker’s attitude and make a comment about the sentence. They usually come at the beginning of the sentence and are followed by a comma.
Surprisingly, there was no charge for the service.
Interestingly, there weren’t many people
there.
To my delight, I bumped into two of my
friends in the restaurant.
Adverbials of manner
These describe how something happens. They usually come after the verb and object, but they can also come before the verb or at the beginning of a sentence, for emphasis. When they are used at the
beginning of a sentence, they are followed by a comma.
Words can fall out of fashion quickly.
She usually drives carefully.
It’s important to spend your money in a sensible way.
She quietly closed the door.
Carefully, she put the lid back on the box.
Time adverbials
These describe when something happens, or how long it happened for. They usually come after the verb and object, but can come at the beginning of a sentence, for emphasis. When they are used at the
beginning of a sentence, they are followed by a comma.
I saw Sam last week.
We moved to London in 2025.
We sat outside in the garden for a while.
Two weeks ago, I saw him in the city centre.
Frequency adverbials
These describe how oft en something happens. Frequency adverbs usually come before the main verb, but aft er the verb be. Adverbial phrases of frequency usually come after the verb and object, but can come at the beginning of a sentence, for emphasis. When they are used at the beginning of a sentence, they are followed by a comma.
I often go shopping there.
She’s usually at the gym in the morning.
I walk that way to work pretty much every day.
From time to time, I wonder how much I really enjoy my job.
Intensifying adverbs
These modify an adjective and make the meaning of the adjective stronger or weaker. They come before the adjective.
She looked extremely happy.
It was quite warm outside.
He was incredibly angry.
Sentence adverbials
These show the speaker’s attitude and make a comment about the sentence. They usually come at the beginning of the sentence and are followed by a comma.
Surprisingly, there was no charge for the service.
Interestingly, there weren’t many people
there.
To my delight, I bumped into two of my
friends in the restaurant.
Quiz
Question 1 of 10
Choose the correct adverbial of manner to complete the sentence: She ___ closed the door.
quietly
quickly
never
Ideas Rule the World: The Invisible Force That Shapes Human Civilization
Throughout the sweep of human history, it has become increasingly clear that ideas, rather than armies or gold, are the ultimate driving force behind the rise and fall of civilizations. While physical power may win battles in the short term, it is the power of ideas that wins wars, transforms societies, and shapes the very fabric of human existence. From the moment our ancestors first conceived of agriculture to the digital revolution that has turned our world upside down, ideas have proven to be the invisible hand that guides the trajectory of human progress.
The notion that ideas rule the world is not merely an abstract philosophical concept but a concrete reality that plays out on the world stage every single day. When we examine the great turning points in history, we invariably find that they were triggered not by brute force alone, but by revolutionary ideas that captured the imagination of masses and set in motion unstoppable waves of change. The Renaissance didn't emerge from nowhere – it was born from the radical idea that human reason and creativity could unlock the mysteries of the universe. The Industrial Revolution wasn't just about steam engines and factories; it was fundamentally about a new way of thinking about production, efficiency, and human potential.
Consider how the simple yet profound idea of democracy has swept across continents, toppling monarchies and authoritarian regimes that seemed impregnable. This concept, which began as a small-scale experiment in ancient Athens, has proven to have such staying power that it continues to inspire freedom movements around the globe. Even today, when people rise up against oppression, they aren't just fighting against particular leaders or policies – they are fighting for the idea that all human beings deserve a voice in their own governance.
The power of ideas becomes even more evident when we look at how they spread and take root in human consciousness. Unlike physical resources, ideas have the remarkable property of growing stronger when shared. When one person teaches an idea to another, the original possessor doesn't lose anything – in fact, both parties become richer. This multiplicative effect means that a single brilliant insight can eventually reach millions of minds, creating a domino effect that can reshape entire civilizations.
Religious and philosophical ideas provide perhaps the most striking examples of this phenomenon. Christianity started with a small group of followers in an obscure corner of the Roman Empire, yet its central message of love, redemption, and human dignity eventually transformed the entire Western world. Buddhism, with its emphasis on compassion and the alleviation of suffering, spread from India across much of Asia, fundamentally altering the way billions of people understand their place in the universe. These ideas didn't spread through conquest or coercion but through their inherent appeal to basic human needs and aspirations.
Scientific ideas have been equally transformative, often overturning centuries of accepted wisdom and opening up entirely new frontiers of human knowledge. When Copernicus proposed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, he wasn't just correcting an astronomical error – he was challenging the very foundation of how humans understood their place in the cosmos. Darwin's theory of evolution didn't merely explain the diversity of life; it revolutionized our understanding of what it means to be human. Einstein's insights into relativity didn't just advance physics; they fundamentally altered our conception of space, time, and reality itself.
The economic realm has been equally susceptible to the transformative power of ideas. Adam Smith's concept of the invisible hand of the market didn't just describe economic behavior – it created a new framework for understanding how societies could organize their productive activities. Karl Marx's ideas about class struggle and economic exploitation, whether one agrees with them or not, have shaped political movements and government policies across the globe for more than a century. More recently, the idea of entrepreneurship and innovation as drivers of economic growth has given birth to Silicon Valley and the modern tech economy.
In the contemporary world, we can see ideas spreading and taking hold with unprecedented speed thanks to digital communication technologies. Social movements can now spring up overnight, powered by ideas that resonate with people across vast distances. The concept of environmental sustainability, once confined to a small circle of scientists and activists, has become a mainstream concern that influences everything from consumer behavior to corporate strategy to international diplomacy. The idea of gender equality, which would have been considered radical just a few generations ago, has gained such momentum that it has transformed workplaces, families, and societies around the world.
However, the power of ideas cuts both ways. Just as beneficial ideas can lift humanity to new heights, dangerous ideas can lead societies down dark paths. The ideologies of fascism and communism, despite their ultimately destructive consequences, demonstrated how compelling ideas could mobilize entire nations and reshape the global political landscape. This sobering reality reminds us that the battle of ideas is one of the most important struggles facing humanity, as the ideas that gain ascendancy today will determine the world we inhabit tomorrow.
The digital age has both amplified the power of ideas and made their spread more unpredictable. On one hand, the internet has democratized access to information and given individuals unprecedented power to share their thoughts with global audiences. A single blog post, video, or social media campaign can now reach millions of people and spark worldwide movements. On the other hand, the same technologies that can spread beneficial ideas can also be used to disseminate misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extremist ideologies at lightning speed.
The challenge for modern societies is learning how to harness the positive power of ideas while building resilience against harmful ones. This requires not just technical solutions but also educational approaches that help people develop critical thinking skills and the ability to distinguish between ideas that serve human flourishing and those that undermine it. Media literacy, scientific literacy, and civic education have never been more important as tools for navigating the complex landscape of competing ideas that characterize our time.
Looking ahead, the ideas that will shape the future are already beginning to emerge. Concepts like artificial intelligence, genetic engineering, and space colonization are no longer confined to science fiction but are actively being developed and debated in research laboratories, corporate boardrooms, and policy circles around the world. The way these ideas evolve and the extent to which they gain acceptance will determine not just what technologies we develop, but how we organize our societies and understand ourselves as human beings.
The environmental crisis has given rise to new ideas about sustainable development, circular economies, and the relationship between human activity and planetary health. These concepts are already beginning to reshape everything from urban planning to international trade agreements. Similarly, growing awareness of social inequality has sparked ideas about universal basic income, stakeholder capitalism, and new models of corporate responsibility that could fundamentally alter the structure of modern economies.
In the end, the phrase "ideas rule the world" captures a fundamental truth about human nature and social progress. While material forces certainly matter, it is our capacity to generate, refine, and act upon ideas that distinguishes us as a species and drives the endless process of social evolution. The battles of tomorrow will not be fought primarily with weapons or wealth, but with competing visions of what humanity can and should become. Understanding this reality and preparing for these intellectual and ideological contests may well be the most important challenge facing our generation and those that will follow.
The notion that ideas rule the world is not merely an abstract philosophical concept but a concrete reality that plays out on the world stage every single day. When we examine the great turning points in history, we invariably find that they were triggered not by brute force alone, but by revolutionary ideas that captured the imagination of masses and set in motion unstoppable waves of change. The Renaissance didn't emerge from nowhere – it was born from the radical idea that human reason and creativity could unlock the mysteries of the universe. The Industrial Revolution wasn't just about steam engines and factories; it was fundamentally about a new way of thinking about production, efficiency, and human potential.
Consider how the simple yet profound idea of democracy has swept across continents, toppling monarchies and authoritarian regimes that seemed impregnable. This concept, which began as a small-scale experiment in ancient Athens, has proven to have such staying power that it continues to inspire freedom movements around the globe. Even today, when people rise up against oppression, they aren't just fighting against particular leaders or policies – they are fighting for the idea that all human beings deserve a voice in their own governance.
The power of ideas becomes even more evident when we look at how they spread and take root in human consciousness. Unlike physical resources, ideas have the remarkable property of growing stronger when shared. When one person teaches an idea to another, the original possessor doesn't lose anything – in fact, both parties become richer. This multiplicative effect means that a single brilliant insight can eventually reach millions of minds, creating a domino effect that can reshape entire civilizations.
Religious and philosophical ideas provide perhaps the most striking examples of this phenomenon. Christianity started with a small group of followers in an obscure corner of the Roman Empire, yet its central message of love, redemption, and human dignity eventually transformed the entire Western world. Buddhism, with its emphasis on compassion and the alleviation of suffering, spread from India across much of Asia, fundamentally altering the way billions of people understand their place in the universe. These ideas didn't spread through conquest or coercion but through their inherent appeal to basic human needs and aspirations.
Scientific ideas have been equally transformative, often overturning centuries of accepted wisdom and opening up entirely new frontiers of human knowledge. When Copernicus proposed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, he wasn't just correcting an astronomical error – he was challenging the very foundation of how humans understood their place in the cosmos. Darwin's theory of evolution didn't merely explain the diversity of life; it revolutionized our understanding of what it means to be human. Einstein's insights into relativity didn't just advance physics; they fundamentally altered our conception of space, time, and reality itself.
The economic realm has been equally susceptible to the transformative power of ideas. Adam Smith's concept of the invisible hand of the market didn't just describe economic behavior – it created a new framework for understanding how societies could organize their productive activities. Karl Marx's ideas about class struggle and economic exploitation, whether one agrees with them or not, have shaped political movements and government policies across the globe for more than a century. More recently, the idea of entrepreneurship and innovation as drivers of economic growth has given birth to Silicon Valley and the modern tech economy.
In the contemporary world, we can see ideas spreading and taking hold with unprecedented speed thanks to digital communication technologies. Social movements can now spring up overnight, powered by ideas that resonate with people across vast distances. The concept of environmental sustainability, once confined to a small circle of scientists and activists, has become a mainstream concern that influences everything from consumer behavior to corporate strategy to international diplomacy. The idea of gender equality, which would have been considered radical just a few generations ago, has gained such momentum that it has transformed workplaces, families, and societies around the world.
However, the power of ideas cuts both ways. Just as beneficial ideas can lift humanity to new heights, dangerous ideas can lead societies down dark paths. The ideologies of fascism and communism, despite their ultimately destructive consequences, demonstrated how compelling ideas could mobilize entire nations and reshape the global political landscape. This sobering reality reminds us that the battle of ideas is one of the most important struggles facing humanity, as the ideas that gain ascendancy today will determine the world we inhabit tomorrow.
The digital age has both amplified the power of ideas and made their spread more unpredictable. On one hand, the internet has democratized access to information and given individuals unprecedented power to share their thoughts with global audiences. A single blog post, video, or social media campaign can now reach millions of people and spark worldwide movements. On the other hand, the same technologies that can spread beneficial ideas can also be used to disseminate misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extremist ideologies at lightning speed.
The challenge for modern societies is learning how to harness the positive power of ideas while building resilience against harmful ones. This requires not just technical solutions but also educational approaches that help people develop critical thinking skills and the ability to distinguish between ideas that serve human flourishing and those that undermine it. Media literacy, scientific literacy, and civic education have never been more important as tools for navigating the complex landscape of competing ideas that characterize our time.
Looking ahead, the ideas that will shape the future are already beginning to emerge. Concepts like artificial intelligence, genetic engineering, and space colonization are no longer confined to science fiction but are actively being developed and debated in research laboratories, corporate boardrooms, and policy circles around the world. The way these ideas evolve and the extent to which they gain acceptance will determine not just what technologies we develop, but how we organize our societies and understand ourselves as human beings.
The environmental crisis has given rise to new ideas about sustainable development, circular economies, and the relationship between human activity and planetary health. These concepts are already beginning to reshape everything from urban planning to international trade agreements. Similarly, growing awareness of social inequality has sparked ideas about universal basic income, stakeholder capitalism, and new models of corporate responsibility that could fundamentally alter the structure of modern economies.
In the end, the phrase "ideas rule the world" captures a fundamental truth about human nature and social progress. While material forces certainly matter, it is our capacity to generate, refine, and act upon ideas that distinguishes us as a species and drives the endless process of social evolution. The battles of tomorrow will not be fought primarily with weapons or wealth, but with competing visions of what humanity can and should become. Understanding this reality and preparing for these intellectual and ideological contests may well be the most important challenge facing our generation and those that will follow.
sweep /swiːp/
Noun – A broad or wide-ranging movement or development over time.
🟢 "Throughout the sweep of human history..."
🔹 rise and fall
Expression – The increase and subsequent decrease of something, often referring to power, influence, or status.
🟢 "Behind the rise and fall of civilizations..."
🔹 driving force
Noun phrase – The main factor that causes something to happen or develop.
🟢 "Ideas... are the ultimate driving force..."
🔹 fabric /ˈfæbrɪk/
Noun – The basic structure of a society, system, or idea.
🟢 "Shapes the very fabric of human existence."
🔹 trajectory /trəˈdʒektəri/
Noun – The path or direction something is moving or developing in.
🟢 "Guides the trajectory of human progress."
🔹 notion /ˈnəʊʃən/
Noun – A belief, idea, or opinion.
🟢 "The notion that ideas rule the world..."
🔹 abstract /ˈæbstrækt/
Adjective – Existing as an idea but not as a physical object.
🟢 "Not merely an abstract philosophical concept..."
🔹 play out
Phrasal verb – To happen or unfold over time.
🟢 "Plays out on the world stage every single day."
🔹 turning point
Noun phrase – A time at which a major change takes place.
🟢 "Great turning points in history..."
🔹 brute force
Noun phrase – Physical strength or violence, without strategy or intellect.
🟢 "Not by brute force alone..."
🔹 capture the imagination
Expression – To fascinate or deeply interest many people.
🟢 "Captured the imagination of masses..."
🔹 set in motion
Expression – To start a process or series of events.
🟢 "Set in motion unstoppable waves of change."
🔹 radical /ˈrædɪkəl/
Adjective – Very new and different from traditional ideas; revolutionary.
🟢 "Born from the radical idea that..."
🔹 efficiency /ɪˈfɪʃənsi/
Noun – The ability to do something without wasting time or resources.
🟢 "A new way of thinking about production, efficiency..."
🔹 topple /ˈtɒpəl/
Verb – To overthrow or remove from power.
🟢 "Toppling monarchies and authoritarian regimes..."
🔹 impregnable /ɪmˈpreɡnəbl/
Adjective – Impossible to defeat or overcome.
🟢 "Regimes that seemed impregnable."
🔹 take root
Phrase – To become established or accepted.
🟢 "Ideas take root in human consciousness."
🔹 multiplicative /ˌmʌltɪˈplɪkətɪv/
Adjective – Having a multiplying or expanding effect.
🟢 "This multiplicative effect..."
🔹 domino effect
Noun phrase – A situation where one event causes a series of similar events.
🟢 "Creating a domino effect..."
🔹 redemption /rɪˈdempʃən/
Noun – The act of being saved from sin, error, or evil.
🟢 "Message of love, redemption, and human dignity..."
🔹 alleviation /əˌliːviˈeɪʃən/
Noun – The act of making pain, suffering, or problems less severe.
🟢 "Emphasis on compassion and the alleviation of suffering."
🔹 coercion /kəʊˈɜːʃən/
Noun – The practice of persuading someone to do something by force or threats.
🟢 "Didn’t spread through conquest or coercion."
🔹 wisdom /ˈwɪzdəm/
Noun – Deep understanding or knowledge, often based on experience.
🟢 "Overturning centuries of accepted wisdom."
🔹 frontier /ˈfrʌn.tɪər/
Noun – A new area of knowledge or activity; a boundary of exploration.
🟢 "New frontiers of human knowledge."
🔹 exploitation /ˌeksplɔɪˈteɪʃən/
Noun – The unfair use of someone or something for personal gain.
🟢 "Economic exploitation..."
🔹 entrepreneurship /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːʃɪp/
Noun – The activity of starting and managing a business, often involving risk.
🟢 "The idea of entrepreneurship and innovation..."
🔹 mainstream /ˈmeɪnstriːm/
Adjective – Accepted by most people as normal or conventional.
🟢 "A mainstream concern..."
🔹 momentum /məˈmentəm/
Noun – The force or speed of movement; growing strength or popularity.
🟢 "Has gained such momentum..."
🔹 sobering /ˈsəʊbərɪŋ/
Adjective – Causing serious thought or reflection; not cheerful.
🟢 "This sobering reality..."
🔹 ascendancy /əˈsendənsi/
Noun – A position of power or influence.
🟢 "Ideas that gain ascendancy..."
🔹 disseminate /dɪˈsemɪneɪt/
Verb – To spread widely, especially information or ideas.
🟢 "Used to disseminate misinformation..."
🔹 misinformation /ˌmɪsɪnfəˈmeɪʃən/
Noun – False or inaccurate information, especially when spread intentionally.
🟢 "Spread misinformation..."
🔹 resilience /rɪˈzɪliəns/
Noun – The ability to recover from difficulties or adapt to challenges.
🟢 "Building resilience against harmful ideas."
🔹 media literacy /ˈmiːdiə ˈlɪtərəsi/
Noun phrase – The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media effectively.
🟢 "Media literacy... as tools for navigating..."
🔹 civic education
Noun phrase – Instruction in the rights and duties of citizenship.
🟢 "Civic education has never been more important..."
🔹 stakeholder capitalism
Noun phrase – An economic system in which companies serve all stakeholders, not just shareholders.
🟢 "Ideas about stakeholder capitalism..."
🔹 universal basic income (UBI)
Noun phrase – A regular, unconditional payment made to all citizens.
🟢 "Ideas about universal basic income..."
🔹 Sustainable development
Noun phrase – Economic development that meets present needs without harming future generations.
🟢 "Ideas about sustainable development..."
🔹 circular economy
Noun phrase – An economic model focused on reuse, recycling, and sustainability.
🟢 "Circular economies..."
🔹 flourishing /ˈflʌrɪʃɪŋ/
Noun – The condition of thriving or doing well, especially in terms of well-being.
🟢 "Ideas that serve human flourishing..."
🔹 concept /ˈkɒnsept/
Noun – An abstract idea or general notion.
🟢 "The concept of environmental sustainability..."
🔹 gain acceptance
Phrase – To become approved or adopted by more people over time.
🟢 "The extent to which they gain acceptance..."
🔹 confined to
Phrase – Limited or restricted to a specific area or group.
🟢 "No longer confined to science fiction..."
🔹 actively being developed
Phrase – In the process of being created, improved, or tested.
🟢 "Actively being developed and debated..."
🔹 boardroom /ˈbɔːdruːm/
Noun – A room where the directors of a company meet; symbolically, the place where major corporate decisions are made.
🟢 "Corporate boardrooms..."
🔹 debate /dɪˈbeɪt/
Verb/Noun – To discuss something in a formal or structured way; a formal discussion.
🟢 "Being debated in research laboratories..."
🔹 shape
Verb – To influence or determine the development of something.
🟢 "Ideas that will shape the future..."
🔹 urban planning
Noun phrase – The process of designing and organizing the use of cities and towns.
🟢 "Beginning to reshape everything from urban planning..."
🔹 international trade agreements
Noun phrase – Official deals between countries regarding how they exchange goods and services.
🟢 "To international trade agreements."
🔹 awareness /əˈweənəs/
Noun – Knowledge or understanding of a situation or fact.
🟢 "Growing awareness of social inequality..."
🔹 social inequality
Noun phrase – Unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges in society.
🟢 "Awareness of social inequality..."
🔹 corporate responsibility
Noun phrase – A company’s duty to act ethically and contribute positively to society.
🟢 "New models of corporate responsibility..."
🔹 material forces
Noun phrase – Physical or economic resources, such as wealth, land, or military power.
🟢 "While material forces certainly matter..."
🔹 refine /rɪˈfaɪn/
Verb – To improve by making small changes.
🟢 "Generate, refine, and act upon ideas..."
🔹 social evolution
Noun phrase – The gradual development of societies over time.
🟢 "Drives the endless process of social evolution..."
🔹 competing visions
Noun phrase – Different and opposing ideas or plans about the future.
🟢 "Competing visions of what humanity can become..."
🔹 ideological contest
Noun phrase – A struggle between sets of beliefs or worldviews.
🟢 "Preparing for these intellectual and ideological contests..."
🔹 generation /ˌdʒenəˈreɪʃən/
Noun – All the people born and living at the same time.
🟢 "The most important challenge facing our generation..."
🔹 follow (in context: "those that will follow")
Verb (idiomatic) – To come after, especially future generations.
🟢 "And those that will follow."
🔹 conspiracy theory /kənˈspɪrəsi ˌθɪəri/
Noun phrase – A belief that events are being controlled secretly by powerful forces.
🟢 "Disseminate... conspiracy theories..."
🔹 extremist ideology
Noun phrase – A set of beliefs that are far from the mainstream and often promote violence or hatred.
🟢 "Spread... extremist ideologies..."
🔹 navigate /ˈnævɪɡeɪt/
Verb – To find one’s way through a difficult situation or system.
🟢 "Navigating the complex landscape of competing ideas..."
🔹 artificial intelligence (AI)
Noun phrase – The capability of machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
🟢 "Concepts like artificial intelligence..."
🔹 genetic engineering
Noun phrase – The process of altering the genes of organisms.
🟢 "Genetic engineering... are being developed..."
🔹 space colonization
Noun phrase – The establishment of human settlements on other planets.
🟢 "Space colonization is no longer science fiction..."
🔹 planetary health
Noun phrase – The health of human civilization and the natural systems it depends on.
🟢 "The relationship between human activity and planetary health."
Noun – A broad or wide-ranging movement or development over time.
🟢 "Throughout the sweep of human history..."
🔹 rise and fall
Expression – The increase and subsequent decrease of something, often referring to power, influence, or status.
🟢 "Behind the rise and fall of civilizations..."
🔹 driving force
Noun phrase – The main factor that causes something to happen or develop.
🟢 "Ideas... are the ultimate driving force..."
🔹 fabric /ˈfæbrɪk/
Noun – The basic structure of a society, system, or idea.
🟢 "Shapes the very fabric of human existence."
🔹 trajectory /trəˈdʒektəri/
Noun – The path or direction something is moving or developing in.
🟢 "Guides the trajectory of human progress."
🔹 notion /ˈnəʊʃən/
Noun – A belief, idea, or opinion.
🟢 "The notion that ideas rule the world..."
🔹 abstract /ˈæbstrækt/
Adjective – Existing as an idea but not as a physical object.
🟢 "Not merely an abstract philosophical concept..."
🔹 play out
Phrasal verb – To happen or unfold over time.
🟢 "Plays out on the world stage every single day."
🔹 turning point
Noun phrase – A time at which a major change takes place.
🟢 "Great turning points in history..."
🔹 brute force
Noun phrase – Physical strength or violence, without strategy or intellect.
🟢 "Not by brute force alone..."
🔹 capture the imagination
Expression – To fascinate or deeply interest many people.
🟢 "Captured the imagination of masses..."
🔹 set in motion
Expression – To start a process or series of events.
🟢 "Set in motion unstoppable waves of change."
🔹 radical /ˈrædɪkəl/
Adjective – Very new and different from traditional ideas; revolutionary.
🟢 "Born from the radical idea that..."
🔹 efficiency /ɪˈfɪʃənsi/
Noun – The ability to do something without wasting time or resources.
🟢 "A new way of thinking about production, efficiency..."
🔹 topple /ˈtɒpəl/
Verb – To overthrow or remove from power.
🟢 "Toppling monarchies and authoritarian regimes..."
🔹 impregnable /ɪmˈpreɡnəbl/
Adjective – Impossible to defeat or overcome.
🟢 "Regimes that seemed impregnable."
🔹 take root
Phrase – To become established or accepted.
🟢 "Ideas take root in human consciousness."
🔹 multiplicative /ˌmʌltɪˈplɪkətɪv/
Adjective – Having a multiplying or expanding effect.
🟢 "This multiplicative effect..."
🔹 domino effect
Noun phrase – A situation where one event causes a series of similar events.
🟢 "Creating a domino effect..."
🔹 redemption /rɪˈdempʃən/
Noun – The act of being saved from sin, error, or evil.
🟢 "Message of love, redemption, and human dignity..."
🔹 alleviation /əˌliːviˈeɪʃən/
Noun – The act of making pain, suffering, or problems less severe.
🟢 "Emphasis on compassion and the alleviation of suffering."
🔹 coercion /kəʊˈɜːʃən/
Noun – The practice of persuading someone to do something by force or threats.
🟢 "Didn’t spread through conquest or coercion."
🔹 wisdom /ˈwɪzdəm/
Noun – Deep understanding or knowledge, often based on experience.
🟢 "Overturning centuries of accepted wisdom."
🔹 frontier /ˈfrʌn.tɪər/
Noun – A new area of knowledge or activity; a boundary of exploration.
🟢 "New frontiers of human knowledge."
🔹 exploitation /ˌeksplɔɪˈteɪʃən/
Noun – The unfair use of someone or something for personal gain.
🟢 "Economic exploitation..."
🔹 entrepreneurship /ˌɒntrəprəˈnɜːʃɪp/
Noun – The activity of starting and managing a business, often involving risk.
🟢 "The idea of entrepreneurship and innovation..."
🔹 mainstream /ˈmeɪnstriːm/
Adjective – Accepted by most people as normal or conventional.
🟢 "A mainstream concern..."
🔹 momentum /məˈmentəm/
Noun – The force or speed of movement; growing strength or popularity.
🟢 "Has gained such momentum..."
🔹 sobering /ˈsəʊbərɪŋ/
Adjective – Causing serious thought or reflection; not cheerful.
🟢 "This sobering reality..."
🔹 ascendancy /əˈsendənsi/
Noun – A position of power or influence.
🟢 "Ideas that gain ascendancy..."
🔹 disseminate /dɪˈsemɪneɪt/
Verb – To spread widely, especially information or ideas.
🟢 "Used to disseminate misinformation..."
🔹 misinformation /ˌmɪsɪnfəˈmeɪʃən/
Noun – False or inaccurate information, especially when spread intentionally.
🟢 "Spread misinformation..."
🔹 resilience /rɪˈzɪliəns/
Noun – The ability to recover from difficulties or adapt to challenges.
🟢 "Building resilience against harmful ideas."
🔹 media literacy /ˈmiːdiə ˈlɪtərəsi/
Noun phrase – The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media effectively.
🟢 "Media literacy... as tools for navigating..."
🔹 civic education
Noun phrase – Instruction in the rights and duties of citizenship.
🟢 "Civic education has never been more important..."
🔹 stakeholder capitalism
Noun phrase – An economic system in which companies serve all stakeholders, not just shareholders.
🟢 "Ideas about stakeholder capitalism..."
🔹 universal basic income (UBI)
Noun phrase – A regular, unconditional payment made to all citizens.
🟢 "Ideas about universal basic income..."
🔹 Sustainable development
Noun phrase – Economic development that meets present needs without harming future generations.
🟢 "Ideas about sustainable development..."
🔹 circular economy
Noun phrase – An economic model focused on reuse, recycling, and sustainability.
🟢 "Circular economies..."
🔹 flourishing /ˈflʌrɪʃɪŋ/
Noun – The condition of thriving or doing well, especially in terms of well-being.
🟢 "Ideas that serve human flourishing..."
🔹 concept /ˈkɒnsept/
Noun – An abstract idea or general notion.
🟢 "The concept of environmental sustainability..."
🔹 gain acceptance
Phrase – To become approved or adopted by more people over time.
🟢 "The extent to which they gain acceptance..."
🔹 confined to
Phrase – Limited or restricted to a specific area or group.
🟢 "No longer confined to science fiction..."
🔹 actively being developed
Phrase – In the process of being created, improved, or tested.
🟢 "Actively being developed and debated..."
🔹 boardroom /ˈbɔːdruːm/
Noun – A room where the directors of a company meet; symbolically, the place where major corporate decisions are made.
🟢 "Corporate boardrooms..."
🔹 debate /dɪˈbeɪt/
Verb/Noun – To discuss something in a formal or structured way; a formal discussion.
🟢 "Being debated in research laboratories..."
🔹 shape
Verb – To influence or determine the development of something.
🟢 "Ideas that will shape the future..."
🔹 urban planning
Noun phrase – The process of designing and organizing the use of cities and towns.
🟢 "Beginning to reshape everything from urban planning..."
🔹 international trade agreements
Noun phrase – Official deals between countries regarding how they exchange goods and services.
🟢 "To international trade agreements."
🔹 awareness /əˈweənəs/
Noun – Knowledge or understanding of a situation or fact.
🟢 "Growing awareness of social inequality..."
🔹 social inequality
Noun phrase – Unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges in society.
🟢 "Awareness of social inequality..."
🔹 corporate responsibility
Noun phrase – A company’s duty to act ethically and contribute positively to society.
🟢 "New models of corporate responsibility..."
🔹 material forces
Noun phrase – Physical or economic resources, such as wealth, land, or military power.
🟢 "While material forces certainly matter..."
🔹 refine /rɪˈfaɪn/
Verb – To improve by making small changes.
🟢 "Generate, refine, and act upon ideas..."
🔹 social evolution
Noun phrase – The gradual development of societies over time.
🟢 "Drives the endless process of social evolution..."
🔹 competing visions
Noun phrase – Different and opposing ideas or plans about the future.
🟢 "Competing visions of what humanity can become..."
🔹 ideological contest
Noun phrase – A struggle between sets of beliefs or worldviews.
🟢 "Preparing for these intellectual and ideological contests..."
🔹 generation /ˌdʒenəˈreɪʃən/
Noun – All the people born and living at the same time.
🟢 "The most important challenge facing our generation..."
🔹 follow (in context: "those that will follow")
Verb (idiomatic) – To come after, especially future generations.
🟢 "And those that will follow."
🔹 conspiracy theory /kənˈspɪrəsi ˌθɪəri/
Noun phrase – A belief that events are being controlled secretly by powerful forces.
🟢 "Disseminate... conspiracy theories..."
🔹 extremist ideology
Noun phrase – A set of beliefs that are far from the mainstream and often promote violence or hatred.
🟢 "Spread... extremist ideologies..."
🔹 navigate /ˈnævɪɡeɪt/
Verb – To find one’s way through a difficult situation or system.
🟢 "Navigating the complex landscape of competing ideas..."
🔹 artificial intelligence (AI)
Noun phrase – The capability of machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
🟢 "Concepts like artificial intelligence..."
🔹 genetic engineering
Noun phrase – The process of altering the genes of organisms.
🟢 "Genetic engineering... are being developed..."
🔹 space colonization
Noun phrase – The establishment of human settlements on other planets.
🟢 "Space colonization is no longer science fiction..."
🔹 planetary health
Noun phrase – The health of human civilization and the natural systems it depends on.
🟢 "The relationship between human activity and planetary health."
Pausing: adverbials
The pause (comma) separates the adverbial from the main clause when:
The adverbial is introductory information
The adverbial is parenthetical (extra information)
The adverbial interrupts the main clause
No pause when:
The adverbial is essential to the meaning
The adverbial flows naturally at the end
The adverbial is short and closely connected to the verb
The adverbial is introductory information
The adverbial is parenthetical (extra information)
The adverbial interrupts the main clause
No pause when:
The adverbial is essential to the meaning
The adverbial flows naturally at the end
The adverbial is short and closely connected to the verb