Verb patterns

Verb + -ing

We use an -ing form after prepositions.
Example: It’s for making bread.

This includes prepositions after certain:
- adjectives: committed to, justified in, meticulous about, renowned for.
- nouns/noun phrases: thanks for, in addition to, with a view to, the idea of, the purpose of, devotion to.
- verbs/verb and object combinations: specialise in, feel like, admire someone for, compliment someone on.

-ing forms also follow:
- many verbs: involve, imagine, can’t help, suggest, bother.
- phrasal verbs: end up, put off, give up, take up, burst out.
- some adjectives: (not) worth, hopeless*, pointless*.
- time linkers: when, before, since, on, upon, until, while, whilst.

* These adjectives can also be followed by the to infinitive.

Example: Kit broke his arm while skiing.

-ing forms when functioning as nouns (gerunds) are often the subject of a sentence.
Example: Overfishing is depleting the cod species.

-ing forms can also function as adjectives (participles): satisfying results, a mystifying problem, participating countries.

Notice the use of the -ing form in the passive:
He doesn’t enjoy being corrected when he speaks English.

Infinitive with to

We use infinitive with to after:
- certain verbs/verb and object combinations/verb phrases: arrange, manage, fail, prepare, bother, persuade someone, allow someone, want someone, occur to someone.
Example: It didn’t occur to me to resign.
- adjectives: bound, inclined, interesting, liable, ready, reluctant, willing.
Example: The road is liable to flood.
- nouns/noun phrases: a (long) way, (it’s her) ambition, (go to) great lengths, (there’s) no need, (the) aim/motive is.
Example: Kate has gone to great lengths to set improvements in motion.

We use infinitive with to:
- after too + adjective/quantifier. Example: It’s too heavy to lift.
- to express purpose. Example: He’s saving to buy a house.

-ing form or infinitive with to

Some verbs can take either the -ing form or infinitive with to depending on the meaning: go on, remember, forget, start, regret, try, stop.
Example: I remember locking the door but I can’t find the key.
Example: Remember to lock the door before going out.

With other verbs there is little or no difference: start, begin, like.

We use the perfect infinitive or -ing form to emphasise the order of activities.
Example: I would love to have met Salvador Dalí.

Notice the use of the perfect infinitive in the passive.
Example: The report is still to be completed.

The human fascination with heights and depths has been a driving force throughout history, pushing the boundaries of exploration, engineering, and scientific understanding. From the towering peaks of the Himalayas to the unfathomable depths of oceanic trenches, these extreme vertical dimensions continue to captivate our imagination and challenge our technological capabilities. This perpetual quest to reach new heights and plumb unknown depths reflects humanity's innate desire to push the envelope and transcend conventional limitations.

## Scaling the Heights: Mountain Exploration and High-Altitude Research

The world's highest peaks have long served as the ultimate testing ground for human endurance and determination. Mount Everest, standing at a staggering 29,032 feet above sea level, remains the gold standard for mountaineering achievement. However, recent scientific studies have revealed alarming trends regarding high-altitude environments that go far beyond the realm of recreational climbing.

Research published in the Journal of Mountain Science in 2024 indicates that climate change is fundamentally altering high-altitude ecosystems at an unprecedented rate. The study, conducted across seventeen mountain ranges globally, demonstrates that temperature increases at elevation are occurring at twice the rate of lowland areas. This phenomenon, known as elevation-dependent warming, is causing glacial retreat, shifting treelines, and disrupting delicate alpine flora and fauna.

The physiological challenges of extreme altitude continue to intrigue medical researchers. At heights exceeding 18,000 feet, the human body enters what scientists term the "death zone," where oxygen levels plummet to roughly one-third of sea-level concentrations. Cutting-edge research from the University of Colorado's Altitude Research Center has uncovered fascinating adaptations in high-altitude populations, particularly among Tibetan and Andean communities who have evolved remarkable genetic modifications that allow them to thrive in oxygen-depleted environments.

These populations exhibit enhanced oxygen-carrying capacity through increased red blood cell production and improved cardiovascular efficiency. Such discoveries are paving the way for breakthrough medical treatments for conditions ranging from heart disease to respiratory disorders, demonstrating how extreme environments can yield invaluable insights for human health.

## Architectural Ambitions: Reaching for the Sky

The race to build ever-taller structures represents humanity's relentless pursuit of vertical supremacy. Modern skyscrapers have evolved from mere symbols of economic prosperity to marvels of engineering innovation that push the limits of materials science and structural design. The Burj Khalifa in Dubai, soaring to 2,717 feet, currently holds the crown as the world's tallest building, but even more ambitious projects are on the horizon.

Engineers and architects are grappling with increasingly complex challenges as building heights continue to escalate. Wind loads, seismic activity, and the fundamental physics of vertical transportation become exponentially more problematic with each additional floor. Recent innovations in materials technology, including ultra-high-strength concrete and advanced steel alloys, are enabling structures that would have been inconceivable just decades ago.

The concept of vertical cities is gaining traction among urban planners seeking solutions to accommodate burgeoning populations in limited horizontal space. These towering metropolises would incorporate residential, commercial, and recreational facilities within single superstructures, fundamentally reimagining how we conceptualize urban living. However, critics argue that such extreme vertical development could exacerbate social stratification, literally creating different classes of citizens at different altitudes.

## Plunging into the Abyss: Ocean Exploration and Deep-Sea Research

While humanity has made tremendous strides in conquering terrestrial heights, the ocean's depths remain largely unexplored territory. The deepest point on Earth, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, plunges to approximately 36,200 feet below sea level—deeper than Mount Everest is tall. This staggering depth represents one of the most hostile environments on our planet, where crushing pressure, absolute darkness, and near-freezing temperatures create conditions that would instantly prove fatal to unprotected human life.

Recent technological breakthroughs in submersible design have opened new frontiers in deep-ocean exploration. The groundbreaking research vessel Limiting Factor, capable of repeated dives to full ocean depth, has revolutionized our understanding of deep-sea ecosystems. Studies conducted using this state-of-the-art technology have uncovered thriving communities of previously unknown organisms that have adapted to survive under pressure levels exceeding 1,000 times that of sea level.

Perhaps most remarkably, scientists have discovered that the deepest ocean trenches are not barren wastelands but rather biodiversity hotspots teeming with unique life forms. These findings have profound implications for our understanding of life's resilience and adaptability, suggesting that extreme environments may harbor the keys to understanding how life might exist on other planets.

The economic potential of deep-sea resources is driving unprecedented investment in exploration technology. Vast deposits of rare earth minerals, essential for modern electronics and renewable energy systems, lie scattered across the abyssal plains. However, the environmental consequences of deep-sea mining remain hotly contested, with marine biologists warning that irreversible damage to these pristine ecosystems could result from commercial exploitation.

## Underground Frontiers: Subterranean Exploration and Cave Systems

Beneath our feet lies another dimension of depth that continues to yield extraordinary discoveries. The world's deepest cave system, Veryovkina Cave in Georgia, extends to a verified depth of 7,257 feet, though speleologists suspect even greater depths await discovery. These subterranean labyrinths represent some of Earth's most challenging environments, where explorers must navigate through cramped passages, underground rivers, and chambers that have remained untouched by sunlight for millions of years.

Cave exploration has contributed significantly to our understanding of geological processes, climate history, and even astrobiology. Stalactites and stalagmites serve as natural archives, preserving detailed records of past climatic conditions spanning hundreds of thousands of years. Recent studies analyzing cave formations have provided crucial data for climate models, helping scientists better understand long-term environmental patterns and predict future changes.

The discovery of extremophile organisms in deep cave systems has revolutionary implications for the search for extraterrestrial life. These microorganisms, which thrive in environments devoid of sunlight and rich in toxic chemicals, demonstrate that life can persist under conditions previously thought uninhabitable. Such findings have informed NASA's exploration strategies for Mars and other potentially habitable celestial bodies.

## The Psychology of Extreme Elevations

The human relationship with extreme heights and depths extends far beyond physical exploration into the realm of psychology and philosophy. Acrophobia, the fear of heights, affects an estimated 5% of the global population, while its counterpart, bathophobia—the fear of depths—is equally prevalent. These phobias reflect deep-seated evolutionary responses that once served protective functions but can become debilitating in modern contexts.

Conversely, many individuals experience what psychologists term "elevation euphoria"—a profound sense of accomplishment and transcendence when reaching great heights. This phenomenon explains the addictive nature of mountain climbing and extreme sports, where participants willingly risk life and limb to experience moments of sublime elevation above the mundane world below.

## Technological Innovations Pushing Boundaries

The relentless pursuit of height and depth has spurred remarkable technological innovations that benefit society far beyond their original applications. Elevator technology, initially developed to serve tall buildings, has evolved into sophisticated systems capable of moving people and goods at unprecedented speeds and distances. The latest magnetic levitation elevators can achieve speeds exceeding 45 miles per hour while maintaining smooth, virtually silent operation.

Similarly, pressure-resistant technologies developed for deep-sea exploration have found applications in industries ranging from oil and gas extraction to pharmaceutical manufacturing. The miniaturization of sensors and communication systems required for extreme environment exploration has contributed to advances in medical devices, autonomous vehicles, and space exploration technology.

## Future Horizons: Pushing Further into the Extremes

Looking ahead, humanity's relationship with height and depth continues to evolve in fascinating directions. Proposed space elevators could theoretically extend from Earth's surface to beyond the atmosphere, revolutionizing space travel and commerce. While significant engineering challenges remain, advances in materials science, particularly in carbon nanotube technology, are bringing such seemingly impossible projects closer to reality.

In the opposite direction, proposed deep drilling projects aim to penetrate Earth's crust to unprecedented depths, potentially reaching the mantle and unlocking new sources of geothermal energy. These ambitious undertakings would require drilling to depths exceeding 30 miles—far deeper than any current technology allows.

The convergence of artificial intelligence, robotics, and materials science promises to unlock previously inaccessible realms of height and depth. Autonomous systems capable of operating in extreme environments could explore areas too dangerous for human presence, expanding our understanding of these vertical frontiers while minimizing risk to human life.

As we continue to push the boundaries of what's possible, the exploration of heights and depths remains a testament to human ingenuity, courage, and our irrepressible desire to understand and conquer the unknown dimensions of our world.